Literature review
A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of current knowledge and or methodological approaches on a particular topic. Literature reviews are secondary sources, and as such, do not report any new or original experimental work.
Most often associated with academic-oriented literature, such as theses, a literature review usually precedes a research proposal and results section. Its ultimate goal is to bring the reader up to date with current literature on a topic and forms the basis for another goal, such as future research that may be needed in the area.
A well-structured literature review is characterized by a logical flow of ideas; current and relevant references with consistent, appropriate referencing style; proper use of terminology; and an unbiased and comprehensive view of the previous research on the topic.
• Cooper, H. (1998). Synthesizing Research: A Guide for Literature Reviews.
• Dellinger, A. (2005). Validity and the Review of Literature. Research in the Schools, 12(2), 41-54.
• Dellinger, A. B. & Leech, N. L. (2007). Toward a Unified Validation Framework in Mixed Methods Research. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, Vol. 1, No. 4, 309-332.
• Galvan, J.L. (1999). Writing Literature Reviews.
• Green, B.N., Johnson, C.D.,and Adams, A. (2006) Writing Narrative Literature Reviews for Peer-Reviewed Journals: Secrets of the Trade. Journal of Chiropractic Medicine, 5(6), pp. 101-114.
• Hart, C. (1998). Doing a Literature Review. Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination. London: Sage and Open University. ISBN 0761959742
• Hart, C. (2001) Doing a Literature Search. A Comprehensive Guide for the Social Sciences. London: Sage. ISBN 0761968091
A well-structured literature review is characterized by a logical flow of ideas; current and relevant references with consistent, appropriate referencing style; proper use of terminology; and an unbiased and comprehensive view of the previous research on the topic.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature_review)
The literature review (Deakin)
The literature review
What is a literature review?
According to Cooper (1988) '... a literature review uses as its database reports of primary or original scholarship, and does not report new primary scholarship itself. The primary reports used in the literature may be verbal, but in the vast majority of cases reports are written documents. The types of scholarship may be empirical, theoretical, critical/analytic, or methodological in nature. Second a literature review seeks to describe, summarise, evaluate, clarify and/or integrate the content of primary reports.'
The review of relevant literature is nearly always a standard chapter of a thesis or dissertation. The review forms an important chapter in a thesis where its purpose is to provide the background to and justification for the research undertaken (Bruce 1994). Bruce, who has published widely on the topic of the literature review, has identified six elements of a literature review. These elements comprise a list; a search; a survey; a vehicle for learning; a research facilitator; and a report (Bruce 1994).
Why do a literature review?
A crucial element of all research degrees is the review of relevant literature. So important is this chapter that its omission represents a void or absence of a major element in research (Afolabi 1992). According to Bourner (1996) there are good reasons for spending time and effort on a review of the literature before embarking on a research project. These reasons include:
to identify gaps in the literature
to avoid reinventing the wheel (at the very least this will save time and it can stop you from making the same mistakes as others)
to carry on from where others have already reached (reviewing the field allows you to build on the platform of existing knowledge and ideas)
to identify other people working in the same fields (a researcher network is a valuable resource)
to increase your breadth of knowledge of your subject area
to identify seminal works in your area
to provide the intellectual context for your own work, enabling you to position your project relative to other work
to identify opposing views
to put your work into perspective
to demonstrate that you can access previous work in an area
to identify information and ideas that may be relevant to your project
to identify methods that could be relevant to your project
http://www-development.deakin.edu.au/wmt/delete_from_uat.phpAs far as the literature review process goes, ultimately the goal for students is to complete their review in the allocated time and to ensure they can maintain currency in their field of study for the duration of their research (Bruce 1990).
The literature review process and the library
A good literature review requires knowledge of the use of indexes and abstracts, the ability to conduct exhaustive bibliographic searches, ability to organise the collected data meaningfully, describe, critique and relate each source to the subject of the inquiry, and present the organised review logically, and last, but by no means least, to correctly cite all sources mentioned (Afolabi 1992). The Library offers a range of training for research students that will assist with the production of literature reviews including sessions on electronic databases, using the bibliographic management software EndNote to download records, Internet searching using Netscape, Library catalogue searching, off-campus student orientation, subject resources, and research skills. Please contact your Liaison Librarian for more details.
EndNote reference management software
EndNote is a reference database that enables you to create your own list of bibliographical references. The EndNote software is provided on the Software Essentials CD or via the ITS Software Library and makes it possible to connect to selected library catalogues and online databases and to incorporate references directly into an EndNote database. It is also possible to export bibliographic records whilst you are searching the Deakin Library catalogue into EndNote. EndNote is a bibliography maker which can locate cited works in its databases and build and format appropriate lists automatically. It can be used in conjunction with a word processing package.
A tutorial has been developed by Deakin University Library staff to assist you to use this feature of EndNote.
Bibliography of cited references and other relevant sources
Afolabi, M. (1992) 'The review of related literature in research' International journal of information and library research, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 59-66.
Bourner, T. (1996) 'The research process: four steps to success', in Greenfield, T. (ed), Research methods: guidance for postgraduates, Arnold, London.
Bruce, C. S. (1990) 'Information skills coursework for postgraduate students: investigation and response at the Queensland University of Technology' Australian Academic & Research Libraries, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 224-232.
Bruce, C. (1993) 'When enough is enough: or how should research students delimit the scope of their literature review?', in Challenging the Conventional Wisdom in Higher Education: Selected Contributions Presented at the Ninteeth Annual National Conference and Twenty-First Birthday Celebration of the Higher Education Research and Development Society of Australasia Inc., HERDSA, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia. pp. 435-439.
Bruce, C. S. (1994) 'Research student's early experiences of the dissertation literature review' Studies in Higher Education, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 217-229.
Bruce, C. (1994) 'Supervising literature reviews', in Zuber-Skerritt, O. and Ryan, Y. (eds), Quality in postgraduate education, Kogan Page, London.
Bruce, C. S. (1997) 'From Neophyte to expert: counting on reflection to facilitate complex conceptions of the literature review', in Zuber-Skerritt, O. (ed), Frameworks for postgraduate education, Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW.
Caspers, J. S (1998) 'Hands-on instruction across the miles: using a web tuturial to teach the literature review research process' Research Strategies, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 187-197.
Cooper, H. M. (1988) 'The structure of knowledge synthesis' Knowledge in Society, vol. 1, pp. 104-126
Cooper, H. M. (1989) Integrating research : a guide for literature reviews, 2nd ed, Sage Publications, Newbury Park, Calif.
Leedy, P. D. (1997) Practical research: planning and design, 6th ed, Merrill, Upper Saddle River, N.J.
Libutti, P.& Kopala, M. (1995) 'The doctoral student, the dissertation, and the library: a review of the literature' Reference Librarian, vol. 48, no. 5, pp. 5-25.
Mauch, J. E.& Birch, J. W. (2003) Guide to the successful thesis and dissertation: a handbook for students and faculty, 5th ed, Marcel Dekker, New York.
(http://www.deakin.edu.au/library/findout/research/litrev.php)
The Literature Review (Central Queensland)
A literature review is an evaluative report of information found in the literature related to your selected area of study. The review should describe, summarise, evaluate and clarify this literature. It should give a theoretical base for the research and help you (the author) determine the nature of your research. Works which are irrelevant should be discarded and those which are peripheral should be looked at critically.
A literature review is more than the search for information, and goes beyond being a descriptive annotated bibliography. All works included in the review must be read, evaluated and analysed (which you would do for an annotated bibliography), but relationships between the literature must also be identified and articulated, in relation to your field of research.
"In writing the literature review, the purpose is to convey to the reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. The literature review must be defined by a guiding concept (eg. your research objective, the problem or issue you are discussing, or your argumentative thesis). It is not just a descriptive list of the material available, or a set of summaries.(http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/litrev.html)
(http://libguides.library.cqu.edu.au/litreview)
Literature Reviews
What this handout is about
This handout will explain what a literature review is and offer insights into the form and construction of a literature review in the humanities, social sciences, and sciences.
Introduction
OK. You've got to write a literature review. You dust off a novel and a book of poetry, settle down in your chair, and get ready to issue a "thumbs up" or "thumbs down" as you leaf through the pages. "Literature review" done. Right?
Wrong! The "literature" of a literature review refers to any collection of materials on a topic, not necessarily the great literary texts of the world. "Literature" could be anything from a set of government pamphlets on British colonial methods in Africa to scholarly articles on the treatment of a torn ACL. And a review does not necessarily mean that your reader wants you to give your personal opinion on whether or not you liked these sources.
What is a literature review, then?
A literature review discusses published information in a particular subject area, and sometimes information in a particular subject area within a certain time period.
A literature review can be just a simple summary of the sources, but it usually has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis. A summary is a recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that information. It might give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations. Or it might trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates. And depending on the situation, the literature review may evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most pertinent or relevant.
But how is a literature review different from an academic research paper?
While the main focus of an academic research paper is to support your own argument, the focus of a literature review is to summarize and synthesize the arguments and ideas of others. The academic research paper also covers a range of sources, but it is usually a select number of sources, because the emphasis is on the argument. Likewise, a literature review can also have an "argument," but it is not as important as covering a number of sources. In short, an academic research paper and a literature review contain some of the same elements. In fact, many academic research papers will contain a literature review section. But it is the aspect of the study (the argument or the sources) that is emphasized that determines what type of document it is.
Why do we write literature reviews?
Literature reviews provide you with a handy guide to a particular topic. If you have limited time to conduct research, literature reviews can give you an overview or act as a stepping stone. For professionals, they are useful reports that keep them up to date with what is current in the field. For scholars, the depth and breadth of the literature review emphasizes the credibility of the writer in his or her field. Literature reviews also provide a solid background for a research paper's investigation. Comprehensive knowledge of the literature of the field is essential to most research papers.
Who writes these things, anyway?
Literature reviews are written occasionally in the humanities, but mostly in the sciences and social sciences; in experiment and lab reports, they constitute a section of the paper. Sometimes a literature review is written as a paper in itself.
Let's get to it! What should I do before writing the literature review?
Clarify
If your assignment is not very specific, seek clarification from your instructor:
• Roughly how many sources should you include?
• What types of sources (books, journal articles, websites)?
• Should you summarize, synthesize, or critique your sources by discussing a common theme or issue?
• Should you evaluate your sources?
• Should you provide subheadings and other background information, such as definitions and/or a history?
Find models
Look for other literature reviews in your area of interest or in the discipline and read them to get a sense of the types of themes you might want to look for in your own research or ways to organize your final review. You can simply put the word "review" in your search engine along with your other topic terms to find articles of this type on the Internet or in an electronic database. The bibliography or reference section of sources you've already read are also excellent entry points into your own research.
Narrow your topic
There are hundreds or even thousands of articles and books on most areas of study. The narrower your topic, the easier it will be to limit the number of sources you need to read in order to get a good survey of the material. Your instructor will probably not expect you to read everything that's out there on the topic, but you'll make your job easier if you first limit your scope.
And don't forget to tap into your professor's (or other professors') knowledge in the field. Ask your professor questions such as: "If you had to read only one book from the 70's on topic X, what would it be?" Questions such as this help you to find and determine quickly the most seminal pieces in the field.
Consider whether your sources are current
Some disciplines require that you use information that is as current as possible. In the sciences, for instance, treatments for medical problems are constantly changing according to the latest studies. Information even two years old could be obsolete. However, if you are writing a review in the humanities, history, or social sciences, a survey of the history of the literature may be what is needed, because what is important is how perspectives have changed through the years or within a certain time period. Try sorting through some other current bibliographies or literature reviews in the field to get a sense of what your discipline expects. You can also use this method to consider what is "hot" and what is not.
Strategies for writing the literature review
Find a focus
A literature review, like a term paper, is usually organized around ideas, not the sources themselves as an annotated bibliography would be organized. This means that you will not just simply list your sources and go into detail about each one of them, one at a time. No. As you read widely but selectively in your topic area, consider instead what themes or issues connect your sources together. Do they present one or different solutions? Is there an aspect of the field that is missing? How well do they present the material and do they portray it according to an appropriate theory? Do they reveal a trend in the field? A raging debate? Pick one of these themes to focus the organization of your review.
Construct a working thesis statement
Then use the focus you've found to construct a thesis statement. Yes! Literature reviews have thesis statements as well! However, your thesis statement will not necessarily argue for a position or an opinion; rather it will argue for a particular perspective on the material. Some sample thesis statements for literature reviews are as follows:
The current trend in treatment for congestive heart failure combines surgery and medicine.
More and more cultural studies scholars are accepting popular media as a subject worthy of academic consideration.
See our handout for more information on how to construct thesis statements.
Consider organization
You've got a focus, and you've narrowed it down to a thesis statement. Now what is the most effective way of presenting the information? What are the most important topics, subtopics, etc., that your review needs to include? And in what order should you present them? Develop an organization for your review at both a global and local level:
First, cover the basic categories
Just like most academic papers, literature reviews also must contain at least three basic elements: an introduction or background information section; the body of the review containing the discussion of sources; and, finally, a conclusion and/or recommendations section to end the paper.
Introduction: Gives a quick idea of the topic of the literature review, such as the central theme or organizational pattern.
Body: Contains your discussion of sources and is organized either chronologically, thematically, or methodologically (see below for more information on each).
Conclusions/Recommendations: Discuss what you have drawn from reviewing literature so far. Where might the discussion proceed?
Organizing the body
Once you have the basic categories in place, then you must consider how you will present the sources themselves within the body of your paper. Create an organizational method to focus this section even further.
To help you come up with an overall organizational framework for your review, consider the following scenario and then three typical ways of organizing the sources into a review:
You've decided to focus your literature review on materials dealing with sperm whales. This is because you've just finished reading Moby Dick, and you wonder if that whale's portrayal is really real. You start with some articles about the physiology of sperm whales in biology journals written in the 1980's. But these articles refer to some British biological studies performed on whales in the early 18th century. So you check those out. Then you look up a book written in 1968 with information on how sperm whales have been portrayed in other forms of art, such as in Alaskan poetry, in French painting, or on whale bone, as the whale hunters in the late 19th century used to do. This makes you wonder about American whaling methods during the time portrayed in Moby Dick, so you find some academic articles published in the last five years on how accurately Herman Melville portrayed the whaling scene in his novel.
Chronological
If your review follows the chronological method, you could write about the materials above according to when they were published. For instance, first you would talk about the British biological studies of the 18th century, then about Moby Dick, published in 1851, then the book on sperm whales in other art (1968), and finally the biology articles (1980s) and the recent articles on American whaling of the 19th century. But there is relatively no continuity among subjects here. And notice that even though the sources on sperm whales in other art and on American whaling are written recently, they are about other subjects/objects that were created much earlier. Thus, the review loses its chronological focus.
By publication
Order your sources by publication chronology, then, only if the order demonstrates a more important trend. For instance, you could order a review of literature on biological studies of sperm whales if the progression revealed a change in dissection practices of the researchers who wrote and/or conducted the studies.
By trend
A better way to organize the above sources chronologically is to examine the sources under another trend, such as the history of whaling. Then your review would have subsections according to eras within this period. For instance, the review might examine whaling from pre-1600-1699, 1700-1799, and 1800-1899. Under this method, you would combine the recent studies on American whaling in the 19th century with Moby Dick itself in the 1800-1899 category, even though the authors wrote a century apart.
Thematic
Thematic reviews of literature are organized around a topic or issue, rather than the progression of time. However, progression of time may still be an important factor in a thematic review. For instance, the sperm whale review could focus on the development of the harpoon for whale hunting. While the study focuses on one topic, harpoon technology, it will still be organized chronologically. The only difference here between a "chronological" and a "thematic" approach is what is emphasized the most: the development of the harpoon or the harpoon technology.
But more authentic thematic reviews tend to break away from chronological order. For instance, a thematic review of material on sperm whales might examine how they are portrayed as "evil" in cultural documents. The subsections might include how they are personified, how their proportions are exaggerated, and their behaviors misunderstood. A review organized in this manner would shift between time periods within each section according to the point made.
Methodological
A methodological approach differs from the two above in that the focusing factor usually does not have to do with the content of the material. Instead, it focuses on the "methods" of the researcher or writer. For the sperm whale project, one methodological approach would be to look at cultural differences between the portrayal of whales in American, British, and French art work. Or the review might focus on the economic impact of whaling on a community. A methodological scope will influence either the types of documents in the review or the way in which these documents are discussed.
Once you've decided on the organizational method for the body of the review, the sections you need to include in the paper should be easy to figure out. They should arise out of your organizational strategy. In other words, a chronological review would have subsections for each vital time period. A thematic review would have subtopics based upon factors that relate to the theme or issue.
Sometimes, though, you might need to add additional sections that are necessary for your study, but do not fit in the organizational strategy of the body. What other sections you include in the body is up to you. Put in only what is necessary. Here are a few other sections you might want to consider:
Current Situation: Information necessary to understand the topic or focus of the literature review.
History: The chronological progression of the field, the literature, or an idea that is necessary to understand the literature review, if the body of the literature review is not already a chronology.
Methods and/or Standards: The criteria you used to select the sources in your literature review or the way in which you present your information. For instance, you might explain that your review includes only peer-reviewed articles and journals.
Questions for Further Research: What questions about the field has the review sparked? How will you further your research as a result of the review?
Begin composing
Once you've settled on a general pattern of organization, you're ready to write each section. There are a few guidelines you should follow during the writing stage as well. Here is a sample paragraph from a literature review about sexism and language to illuminate the following discussion:
However, other studies have shown that even gender-neutral antecedents are more likely to produce masculine images than feminine ones (Gastil, 1990). Hamilton (1988) asked students to complete sentences that required them to fill in pronouns that agreed with gender-neutral antecedents such as "writer," "pedestrian," and "persons." The students were asked to describe any image they had when writing the sentence. Hamilton found that people imagined 3.3 men to each woman in the masculine "generic" condition and 1.5 men per woman in the unbiased condition. Thus, while ambient sexism accounted for some of the masculine bias, sexist language amplified the effect. (Source: Erika Falk and Jordan Mills, "Why Sexist Language Affects Persuasion: The Role of Homophily, Intended Audience, and Offense," Women and Language19:2.
Use evidence
In the example above, the writers refer to several other sources when making their point. A literature review in this sense is just like any other academic research paper. Your interpretation of the available sources must be backed up with evidence to show that what you are saying is valid.
Be selective
Select only the most important points in each source to highlight in the review. The type of information you choose to mention should relate directly to the review's focus, whether it is thematic, methodological, or chronological.
Use quotes sparingly
Falk and Mills do not use any direct quotes. That is because the survey nature of the literature review does not allow for in-depth discussion or detailed quotes from the text. Some short quotes here and there are okay, though, if you want to emphasize a point, or if what the author said just cannot be rewritten in your own words. Notice that Falk and Mills do quote certain terms that were coined by the author, not common knowledge, or taken directly from the study. But if you find yourself wanting to put in more quotes, check with your instructor.
Summarize and synthesize
Remember to summarize and synthesize your sources within each paragraph as well as throughout the review. The authors here recapitulate important features of Hamilton's study, but then synthesize it by rephrasing the study's significance and relating it to their own work.
Keep your own voice
While the literature review presents others' ideas, your voice (the writer's) should remain front and center. Notice that Falk and Mills weave references to other sources into their own text, but they still maintain their own voice by starting and ending the paragraph with their own ideas and their own words. The sources support what Falk and Mills are saying.
Use caution when paraphrasing
When paraphrasing a source that is not your own, be sure to represent the author's information or opinions accurately and in your own words. In the preceding example, Falk and Mills either directly refer in the text to the author of their source, such as Hamilton, or they provide ample notation in the text when the ideas they are mentioning are not their own, for example, Gastil's. For more information, please see our handout on plagiarism.
Revise, revise, revise
Draft in hand? Now you're ready to revise. Spending a lot of time revising is a wise idea, because your main objective is to present the material, not the argument. So check over your review again to make sure it follows the assignment and/or your outline. Then, just as you would for most other academic forms of writing, rewrite or rework the language of your review so that you've presented your information in the most concise manner possible. Be sure to use terminology familiar to your audience; get rid of unnecessary jargon or slang. Finally, double check that you've documented your sources and formatted the review appropriately for your discipline. For tips on the revising and editing process, see our handout on revising drafts.
Works consulted
We consulted these works while writing the original version of this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout's topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find the latest publications on this topic. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial.
Anson, Chris M. and Robert A. Schwegler, The Longman Handbook for Writers and Readers. Second edition. New York: Longman, 2000.
Jones, Robert, Patrick Bizzaro, and Cynthia Selfe. The Harcourt Brace Guide to Writing in the Disciplines. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1997.
Lamb, Sandra E. How to Write It: A Complete Guide to Everything You'll Ever Write. Berkeley, Calif.: Ten Speed Press, 1998.
Rosen, Leonard J. and Laurence Behrens. The Allyn and Bacon Handbook. Fourth edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2000.
Troyka, Lynn Quitman. Simon and Schuster Handbook for Writers. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2002.
(http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/literature_review.html)
curahan hati (Happiness, sadness, etc)
Rabu, 03 November 2010
Literature
1. What kind of man was Little Chandler? In what way did his nickname fit him? In how many ways was Little Chandler Little? What did he do for a living? What was his secret ambition?
A gentle melancholy.
Because though he was slightly under the average stature, he gave one idea of being a little man.
By his hands were white and small, his frame was fragile, his voice was quite and his manners were refined. He took the greatest care of his fair silken hair and moustache and used perfume discreetly on his handkerchief. The half moons of his nails were perfect and when he smiled you caught a glimpse of a roe of childish white teeth.
2. Why was his meeting with Ignatius Gallaher so keenly anticipated? Where was they are going to meet? With what daydreams (reveries) did he amuse himself on the way to the meeting?
Because Gallaher is his little old friend and they know each other well until finally they separated for eight years. They had a lunchtime for answer Gallaher’s invitation and of the great city London. There are some things that make his journey to the meeting is not amuse.
3. As Little Chandler recalled him, what kind of man was Gallaher? What was he like as Chandler observed him at the bar?
Ignatius Gallaher was wild. He did mix with a rakish set of fellows at that time, drank freely and borrowed money on all sides. But nobody denied him talent.
When Gallaher took off his hat and displayed a large closely cropped head, his face was heavy, pale and clean-shaven. His eyes which were of bluish slate-color, relieved his unhealthy pallor and shone out plainly above the vivid orange tie he wore. Between this rival features the lips appeared very long and shapeless and colorless.
4. As the two men drank at the bar, a change came over Little Chandler. What kind of change? What caused it?
The change is Chandler felt that Gallaher’s accent and way of expressing himself did not please Chandler that there was something vulgar in his friend which he had not observed before. The caused perhaps it was only the result of living in London amid the bustled and competition press.
5. The scene shifted suddenly to Little Chandler’s home. What picture of Little Chandler did you get? Why truth about his marriage was now revealed?
• In Little Chandler house, he looked to Annie’s photograph. It makes him reminded of an accident when he had brought her wife pale blue summer blouse as a present one Saturday. It had cost him ten and elevenpence: but what an agony at nervousness it had cost him. How he had suffered that day to buy it. When he gave it she was very happy but when she knew about the price, she threw the blouse. How he had suffered that day, waiting at the shop door until the shop was empty, standing at the counter and trying to appear at his ease while the at the girl piled ladies` blouse before him, paying at the desk and forgetting to take up the odd penny of his change, being called back by the cashier, and finally, striving to hide his blushes as lie left the shop by examining the parcel to see it it was securely tied. When he brought home Annie kissed him and said it was very pretty and stylish; but when she heard the price she threw the blouse on the table and said it was a regular swindle to charge ten and elevenpence for it.
• He seems regret with his marriage. With his statements, “Could he not escape from his little house? Was it too late for him to try to live bravely like Gallaher? Could he go to London? There was the furniture still to be paid for”. If he could only write a book and published, that might open the way for him.
6. The child awoke and began to cry, interrupting Little Chandler`s reverie. What was he dreaming about? Why was he so upset by the child`s crying?
• He was dreaming if he can express about melancholy of his soul in verse like Byron, a poet.
• He was so upset because the child disturbed his dreaming with his child’s crying. His wife also became so angry because the child cried.
7. What is your explanation of the child’s violent sobbing? Had Little Chandler really “done anything” to the child, as Annie suspected? How did she meet the situation?
The child strated crying, after the child woke up and heard the Little Chandler read the poem from his book. The poem express the melancholy because in the poem, there’s statement “whilst I return to view my Margaret’s tomb and scatter flowers on the dust I love”. It’s a pathetic statement. Maybe the child cried because he was influenced with that statement.
No, he didn’t.
She meet the situation, when she came into the room and she saw the child was crying and the Little Chandler was in the same room with the child.
8. What was the root of Little Chandler’s shame as he stood back and watched his wife quiet the child? Should he have wept “tears of remorse” ?
The Little Chandler shame to himself because he couldn’t make a child hush, while his wife able to do that. No, he shouldn’t
A gentle melancholy.
Because though he was slightly under the average stature, he gave one idea of being a little man.
By his hands were white and small, his frame was fragile, his voice was quite and his manners were refined. He took the greatest care of his fair silken hair and moustache and used perfume discreetly on his handkerchief. The half moons of his nails were perfect and when he smiled you caught a glimpse of a roe of childish white teeth.
2. Why was his meeting with Ignatius Gallaher so keenly anticipated? Where was they are going to meet? With what daydreams (reveries) did he amuse himself on the way to the meeting?
Because Gallaher is his little old friend and they know each other well until finally they separated for eight years. They had a lunchtime for answer Gallaher’s invitation and of the great city London. There are some things that make his journey to the meeting is not amuse.
3. As Little Chandler recalled him, what kind of man was Gallaher? What was he like as Chandler observed him at the bar?
Ignatius Gallaher was wild. He did mix with a rakish set of fellows at that time, drank freely and borrowed money on all sides. But nobody denied him talent.
When Gallaher took off his hat and displayed a large closely cropped head, his face was heavy, pale and clean-shaven. His eyes which were of bluish slate-color, relieved his unhealthy pallor and shone out plainly above the vivid orange tie he wore. Between this rival features the lips appeared very long and shapeless and colorless.
4. As the two men drank at the bar, a change came over Little Chandler. What kind of change? What caused it?
The change is Chandler felt that Gallaher’s accent and way of expressing himself did not please Chandler that there was something vulgar in his friend which he had not observed before. The caused perhaps it was only the result of living in London amid the bustled and competition press.
5. The scene shifted suddenly to Little Chandler’s home. What picture of Little Chandler did you get? Why truth about his marriage was now revealed?
• In Little Chandler house, he looked to Annie’s photograph. It makes him reminded of an accident when he had brought her wife pale blue summer blouse as a present one Saturday. It had cost him ten and elevenpence: but what an agony at nervousness it had cost him. How he had suffered that day to buy it. When he gave it she was very happy but when she knew about the price, she threw the blouse. How he had suffered that day, waiting at the shop door until the shop was empty, standing at the counter and trying to appear at his ease while the at the girl piled ladies` blouse before him, paying at the desk and forgetting to take up the odd penny of his change, being called back by the cashier, and finally, striving to hide his blushes as lie left the shop by examining the parcel to see it it was securely tied. When he brought home Annie kissed him and said it was very pretty and stylish; but when she heard the price she threw the blouse on the table and said it was a regular swindle to charge ten and elevenpence for it.
• He seems regret with his marriage. With his statements, “Could he not escape from his little house? Was it too late for him to try to live bravely like Gallaher? Could he go to London? There was the furniture still to be paid for”. If he could only write a book and published, that might open the way for him.
6. The child awoke and began to cry, interrupting Little Chandler`s reverie. What was he dreaming about? Why was he so upset by the child`s crying?
• He was dreaming if he can express about melancholy of his soul in verse like Byron, a poet.
• He was so upset because the child disturbed his dreaming with his child’s crying. His wife also became so angry because the child cried.
7. What is your explanation of the child’s violent sobbing? Had Little Chandler really “done anything” to the child, as Annie suspected? How did she meet the situation?
The child strated crying, after the child woke up and heard the Little Chandler read the poem from his book. The poem express the melancholy because in the poem, there’s statement “whilst I return to view my Margaret’s tomb and scatter flowers on the dust I love”. It’s a pathetic statement. Maybe the child cried because he was influenced with that statement.
No, he didn’t.
She meet the situation, when she came into the room and she saw the child was crying and the Little Chandler was in the same room with the child.
8. What was the root of Little Chandler’s shame as he stood back and watched his wife quiet the child? Should he have wept “tears of remorse” ?
The Little Chandler shame to himself because he couldn’t make a child hush, while his wife able to do that. No, he shouldn’t
ITR 2
1. Write 5 research problems base on the journals.
Journal one :
“The Effect of Topic Familiarity and Passage Sight Vocabulary on L2 Lexical Inferencing and Retention through Reading”.
Journal two :
“Facilitator Talk in EAP Reading Classes”.
Journal three :
“Language Learning Strategies and EAP Proficency: Teacher views, student views, and test results”.
Journal four :
“Learning Difficulty and Learner Identity: a symbotic relationship”.
Journal five :
“Introducing English To Bilingual Young Learners: Does The Critical Period Play A Role?...”.
2. Write the research questions for each research problem.
Journal one :
1. Which of the following factors have a significant impact on L2 lexical inferencing when reading brief narratives: (a) topic familiarity, (b) passage sight vocabulary?...
2. Which of the following factors have a significant impact on difficulty in lexical inferencing when reading brief narratives: (a) topic familiarity, (b) passage sight vocabulary?...
3. Which of the following factors have a significant impact on L2 lexical retention from reading brief narratives, after an inference, verification task to confirm or correct original guesses: (a) topic familiarity, (b) passage sight vocabulary?...
Journal two :
1. How to elaborate the role of teacher in facilitator talk in EAP reading classes?...
2. What is Clifton’s definition of facilitator talk in EAP reading classes?...
3. How facilitator talk also contributes to the success of collaborative tasks in EAP reading classes?...
Journal three :
1. What language learning strategies do City University EAP students use?...
2. Does strategy use differ by discipline?...
3. What strategies are associated with higher or lower levels of proficiency?...
4. What strategies do EAP teachers believe to be the most useful for EAP?...
5. What strategies do EAP students believe to be the most useful for EAP?...
Journal four :
1. How to finding of this investigation?...
2. How to focus on the construction of Junior’s identity?...
3. How to relate between learner identity and learner difficulty?...
4. How to contribute learner identity and learner identity?...
Journal five :
1. What is the language design?...
2. What is teachers introduced to learners with skill of translation from English to bahasa Indonesia?...
3. How maturation affects language acquisition, especially the obtaining of part of English aspects by bilingual children in a state kindergarten in Surakarta?...
3. Write the research purpose clearly for each problem.
Journal one :
To examines the impact of topic familiarity and passage sight vocabulary on lexical inferencing and retention.
Journal two :
This paper aims to further the work on facilitator talk begun by Clifton (2006) and Walsh (2002). It looks particularly at the role of facilitator in teaching reading and shows how teachers can enhance students’ dialogue with text by using un obtrusive task management, re-directing students’ attention to the text, increasing prospectiveness (Hammond and Gibbons 2005), and giving sensitive feedback.
Journal three :
One aim of this study has been to try to answer the general question ‘What are the most useful strategies for EAP students?’
Journal four :
The result of this study are promising and offer teachers a more empowering and optimistic way of dealing with students who present difficulty learning English.
Journal five :
The result seem to support some psycholinguistics who claimed that children who start the learning of a language within their critical period will get better results than who start after the elasticity of the brain for language learning has declined.
4. Write the research design used by the researchers to study the research problems.
Journal one : The experimental method
Journal two : Ethnography
Journal three : Survey Research
Journal four : Case Study Approaches
Journal five : Action Research
5. Select one research problem that you like most. Rewrite the procedures clearly, write a brief elaboration for each procedure.
A repeated measure desing was used. All participants read passages from each condition (i.e. one more and one less familiar passage). During session one, in small group, all participants completed the L2 passage sight vocabulary test, followed by topic familiarity questionnaire. Session two was conducted approximately one week later in a laboratory, on an individual basis. After the training phase, each participant read the first story and completed the accompanying lexical inferencing and difficulty rating tasks before continuing to the next story. Order of presentation of the passages was counterbalanced. After reading both stories, all participants completed the same self-paced online target words verification task to promote elaborative processing of the target words in an error-free manner by allowing participants to confirm or correct the guesses and in so doing make connections between the new word form, its meaning, and the context in which it had appeared in the story. Each target words sentence was presented individually on a computer screen, in the same order of presentation as in the story. The target words translation appeared in the right-hand margin. Participants were instructed to confirm or correct their guesses about each word and to be sure they understood the sentence before continuing to subsequent. They were told to anticipate questions about the sentences, but were not explicitly alerted to the vocabulary tests that followed in order to encourage integration of the target words meaning into the sentence and context, as opposed to looking only at the gloss or engaging in memorization routines. Afterwards, participants completed the lexical retention tests in the following order: L2-L1 translation production, L2-L1 multiple choice translation recognition. Session two concluded with a debriefing phase to explain the purpose of the experiment and use of nonsense words.
6. Refer to any books about Action Research suggested in Introduction to Research SAP, and find the following information. What is an action research? What are the possible purposes in conducting an action research? What kinds of topics or problems of English are commonly treated through an action research? Write the possible procedures in conducting an action research.
Action research is a group activity (Kemmis and McTaggart 1998:6). Cohen and Manion (1985) offer a similar set of characteristics. They argue that action research is first and foremost situational, being concerned with the identification and solution of problems in a specific context. They also identify collaboration as an important feature of this type of research, and state that the aim of action research is to improve the current state of affairs within the educational context in which the research is being carried out. Action research is concerned with trying to improving one specific point in a teacher’s technique in a particular classroom using empirical measurement. Teacher-initiated classroom research which seeks to increase the teacher’s understanding of classroom teaching and learning and to bring about improvements in classroom practices. Action research typically involves small-scale investigative projects in the teacher’s own classroom. This usually includes having an observer collect data, and together with the teacher develop a plan to bring about the desired change, act on the plan, and then observe the effects of the plan in the classroom. The procedure in conducting an action research are class description, problem identification, preliminary investigation, hypothesis, intervention, outcome, conclusion, and reflection.
7. Write your references (rubric no.3) follow the writing style from one of the journals references you like.
a. Journal 1: Pulido, D. 2005. ‘The Effect of Topic Familiarity and Passage sight Vocabulary on L2 Lexical Inferencing and Retention Through Reading’. 28/1:66-83.
b. Journal 2: Wilson, K. 2007. ‘Facilitator Talk in EAP Reading Classes’ 62/4:366-375.
c. Journal 3: Peacock, M. Hirano, E. 2008. ‘Language Learning Strategies and EAP Proficiency: Teacher Views, Student Views, and Test Result’ 63/1:33-41.
d. Journal 4: Hirano, E. 2008. ‘Learning Difficulty and Learner Identity: a Symbiotic Relationship’. ELT Journal Volume 63/1.
e. Djatmika. 2006. Jurnal Bahasa, Sastra, dan Studi Amerika. Surakata: Universitas Sebelas Maret
Journal one :
“The Effect of Topic Familiarity and Passage Sight Vocabulary on L2 Lexical Inferencing and Retention through Reading”.
Journal two :
“Facilitator Talk in EAP Reading Classes”.
Journal three :
“Language Learning Strategies and EAP Proficency: Teacher views, student views, and test results”.
Journal four :
“Learning Difficulty and Learner Identity: a symbotic relationship”.
Journal five :
“Introducing English To Bilingual Young Learners: Does The Critical Period Play A Role?...”.
2. Write the research questions for each research problem.
Journal one :
1. Which of the following factors have a significant impact on L2 lexical inferencing when reading brief narratives: (a) topic familiarity, (b) passage sight vocabulary?...
2. Which of the following factors have a significant impact on difficulty in lexical inferencing when reading brief narratives: (a) topic familiarity, (b) passage sight vocabulary?...
3. Which of the following factors have a significant impact on L2 lexical retention from reading brief narratives, after an inference, verification task to confirm or correct original guesses: (a) topic familiarity, (b) passage sight vocabulary?...
Journal two :
1. How to elaborate the role of teacher in facilitator talk in EAP reading classes?...
2. What is Clifton’s definition of facilitator talk in EAP reading classes?...
3. How facilitator talk also contributes to the success of collaborative tasks in EAP reading classes?...
Journal three :
1. What language learning strategies do City University EAP students use?...
2. Does strategy use differ by discipline?...
3. What strategies are associated with higher or lower levels of proficiency?...
4. What strategies do EAP teachers believe to be the most useful for EAP?...
5. What strategies do EAP students believe to be the most useful for EAP?...
Journal four :
1. How to finding of this investigation?...
2. How to focus on the construction of Junior’s identity?...
3. How to relate between learner identity and learner difficulty?...
4. How to contribute learner identity and learner identity?...
Journal five :
1. What is the language design?...
2. What is teachers introduced to learners with skill of translation from English to bahasa Indonesia?...
3. How maturation affects language acquisition, especially the obtaining of part of English aspects by bilingual children in a state kindergarten in Surakarta?...
3. Write the research purpose clearly for each problem.
Journal one :
To examines the impact of topic familiarity and passage sight vocabulary on lexical inferencing and retention.
Journal two :
This paper aims to further the work on facilitator talk begun by Clifton (2006) and Walsh (2002). It looks particularly at the role of facilitator in teaching reading and shows how teachers can enhance students’ dialogue with text by using un obtrusive task management, re-directing students’ attention to the text, increasing prospectiveness (Hammond and Gibbons 2005), and giving sensitive feedback.
Journal three :
One aim of this study has been to try to answer the general question ‘What are the most useful strategies for EAP students?’
Journal four :
The result of this study are promising and offer teachers a more empowering and optimistic way of dealing with students who present difficulty learning English.
Journal five :
The result seem to support some psycholinguistics who claimed that children who start the learning of a language within their critical period will get better results than who start after the elasticity of the brain for language learning has declined.
4. Write the research design used by the researchers to study the research problems.
Journal one : The experimental method
Journal two : Ethnography
Journal three : Survey Research
Journal four : Case Study Approaches
Journal five : Action Research
5. Select one research problem that you like most. Rewrite the procedures clearly, write a brief elaboration for each procedure.
A repeated measure desing was used. All participants read passages from each condition (i.e. one more and one less familiar passage). During session one, in small group, all participants completed the L2 passage sight vocabulary test, followed by topic familiarity questionnaire. Session two was conducted approximately one week later in a laboratory, on an individual basis. After the training phase, each participant read the first story and completed the accompanying lexical inferencing and difficulty rating tasks before continuing to the next story. Order of presentation of the passages was counterbalanced. After reading both stories, all participants completed the same self-paced online target words verification task to promote elaborative processing of the target words in an error-free manner by allowing participants to confirm or correct the guesses and in so doing make connections between the new word form, its meaning, and the context in which it had appeared in the story. Each target words sentence was presented individually on a computer screen, in the same order of presentation as in the story. The target words translation appeared in the right-hand margin. Participants were instructed to confirm or correct their guesses about each word and to be sure they understood the sentence before continuing to subsequent. They were told to anticipate questions about the sentences, but were not explicitly alerted to the vocabulary tests that followed in order to encourage integration of the target words meaning into the sentence and context, as opposed to looking only at the gloss or engaging in memorization routines. Afterwards, participants completed the lexical retention tests in the following order: L2-L1 translation production, L2-L1 multiple choice translation recognition. Session two concluded with a debriefing phase to explain the purpose of the experiment and use of nonsense words.
6. Refer to any books about Action Research suggested in Introduction to Research SAP, and find the following information. What is an action research? What are the possible purposes in conducting an action research? What kinds of topics or problems of English are commonly treated through an action research? Write the possible procedures in conducting an action research.
Action research is a group activity (Kemmis and McTaggart 1998:6). Cohen and Manion (1985) offer a similar set of characteristics. They argue that action research is first and foremost situational, being concerned with the identification and solution of problems in a specific context. They also identify collaboration as an important feature of this type of research, and state that the aim of action research is to improve the current state of affairs within the educational context in which the research is being carried out. Action research is concerned with trying to improving one specific point in a teacher’s technique in a particular classroom using empirical measurement. Teacher-initiated classroom research which seeks to increase the teacher’s understanding of classroom teaching and learning and to bring about improvements in classroom practices. Action research typically involves small-scale investigative projects in the teacher’s own classroom. This usually includes having an observer collect data, and together with the teacher develop a plan to bring about the desired change, act on the plan, and then observe the effects of the plan in the classroom. The procedure in conducting an action research are class description, problem identification, preliminary investigation, hypothesis, intervention, outcome, conclusion, and reflection.
7. Write your references (rubric no.3) follow the writing style from one of the journals references you like.
a. Journal 1: Pulido, D. 2005. ‘The Effect of Topic Familiarity and Passage sight Vocabulary on L2 Lexical Inferencing and Retention Through Reading’. 28/1:66-83.
b. Journal 2: Wilson, K. 2007. ‘Facilitator Talk in EAP Reading Classes’ 62/4:366-375.
c. Journal 3: Peacock, M. Hirano, E. 2008. ‘Language Learning Strategies and EAP Proficiency: Teacher Views, Student Views, and Test Result’ 63/1:33-41.
d. Journal 4: Hirano, E. 2008. ‘Learning Difficulty and Learner Identity: a Symbiotic Relationship’. ELT Journal Volume 63/1.
e. Djatmika. 2006. Jurnal Bahasa, Sastra, dan Studi Amerika. Surakata: Universitas Sebelas Maret
Research E-books
Resources
Online Resources: Digests
July 1999
EDO-FL-99-03
Two-Way Bilingual Education Programs in Practice: A National and Local Perspective
National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning
Two-way bilingual education (also known as bilingual immersion, two-way immersion, developmental bilingual, and dual language programs) has taken root in many schools across the United States. In these programs, students develop dual language proficiency by receiving instruction in English and another language in a classroom that is usually comprised of half native speakers of English and half native speakers of the target language. While Spanish is currently the most common target language represented in two-way programs, other programs support learning through Cantonese, Korean, Japanese, Navajo, Russian, Portuguese, and French. Two-way programs provide both sets of students with ample exposure to the two languages, allowing them to progress academically in both languages and gain an appreciation of another culture.
Two-way bilingual programs work toward academic, language, and affective goals. Language minority students benefit from the opportunity to develop and learn through their native language as well as English (Krashen, 1991), and English speakers achieve well academically in an immersion environment (Genesee, 1987; Harley, Allen, Cummins, & Swain, 1990). The additive bilingual environment supports development of both languages and enhances students' self-esteem and cross-cultural understanding (Christian, 1994).
Implementation Issues
The two-way curriculum is content based and focuses on the development of strong academic achievement in both languages. Because students learn content through a language they do not speak natively, techniques that make instruction more comprehensible are preferred. The strategies teachers use most often include experiential or hands-on activities, thematic units, peer interaction, multiple cues that give students additional chances to master concepts (e.g., a graphic representation such as a semantic web followed by discussion or direct experience on a field trip), and whole language approaches.
While the goals of two-way bilingual programs generally remain constant, the methods through which these goals are realized depend largely on local conditions, demographics, and community attitudes. As a result, each program makes a selection from a variety of modes of instruction. For example, a program may allocate the two languages by content (e.g., social studies and math are taught in Spanish, while science, arts, and music are taught in English); by time (e.g., instruction in each language on alternate days); or by person (e.g., one teacher uses only Cantonese and another uses only English). Some programs operate as magnets within their districts; others are strictly neighborhood based.
Two-way programs also follow different language development models. The two most popular are the "50/50" model, in which the students receive instruction for equal amounts of time in the two languages, and the "90/10" model, in which about 90% of the instruction is in the target language with about 10% in English in the early grades, gradually moving toward 50/50 in the upper grades. The way in which students are integrated varies somewhat as well. Many programs never separate the students based on their language background, while others provide specific second language instruction to segregated groups every day. However, as Christian (1994) points out, cross-group interaction helps students realize the full benefits of the two-way approach, since the presence of native speakers of both language groups makes the environment of two-way programs more conducive to second language learning.
Future Directions and Concerns
As noted, choices in program design and instruction must be made as two-way programs are planned, but the effects of various alternatives are not fully known. Another concern is articulation: There are few two-way programs that continue on to the secondary level. Because target language development and maintenance require ongoing support, students' proficiency in the target language may decline after they enter secondary school.
A growing area of interest is the development of two-way bilingual programs in diverse languages. Although Spanish is the most common target language used in these programs at this time, some communities where other languages are predominant may benefit from two-way programs. Interest also prevails in establishing programs at the secondary level to continue target language development and maintenance. Community and parental support are crucial for the creation and prolonged existence of these programs.
Emerging Results of Two-Way Bilingual Programs
Various reports and statistics reveal that the two-way approach is effective not only in the teaching of two languages to both language groups but also in the development of academic excellence. Lindholm and Gavlek (1994) cite examples of schools with two-way programs where student achievement on several standardized tests - including math achievement tests in English and Spanish - demonstrate academic progress as well as fluency in both languages. While the researchers noticed major variations within and across school sites, it was clear that the students were achieving the desired levels of bilingual proficiency. Ongoing research by Collier (1994) in five urban districts shows that language minority (Hispanic) students in two-way programs experience more long-term educational gains than students in other bilingual or English as a second language (ESL) programs.
The Amigos Program: A Local View
"Design of the Program." The Amigos program was established in Cambridge, MA in 1985-1986 and now serves nearly 300 students. It was the result of a collaborative effort of parents, teachers, and administrators of the Cambridge Public Schools who wished to develop a program that would combine the best features of transitional bilingual education for limited-English-proficient (LEP) students and language immersion for native English speakers. Following the "50/50" model, the Amigos Program is comprised of 50% LEP Hispanics and 50% non-Hispanic English speakers. Each class consists of a Spanish-speaking teacher and an English-speaking teacher who maintain separate language environments for the students. Student progress is evaluated through standardized tests and portfolio assessment (Cazabon, Lambert, & Hall, 1992).
"Assessment of the Program." Cazabon, Lambert, and Hall (1992) compared students in the Amigos program with two separate groups of students in the Cambridge Public Schools: the English-Amigos were compared with English controls (native English speakers) from an all-English public school program and the Spanish-Amigos were compared with Spanish controls (native Spanish speakers) in a standard bilingual education program. These control groups were equated with Amigos students on social class background and a non-verbal measure of intelligence (Raven's test). A series of tests were given to the Amigos and to the comparison groups in order to determine the students' achievement in both languages. Because the tests differ in the way they measure students' language skills and academic achievement, the combination of the following results is even more indicative of the program's success.
English-Amigos performed generally better on the California Achievement Test than the English controls; the Spanish-Amigos scored above the norm and higher than the Spanish controls on the same test. Both English-Amigos and Spanish-Amigos scored higher on English-based math tests, showing the Spanish-Amigos' ability to apply English to another subject area. On Spanish language tests, both English-Amigos and Spanish-Amigos demonstrated grade-level progress in reading and math; however, because the Spanish-Amigos' reading skills were somewhat below that of the Spanish controls, the Amigos program intends to focus on improving the Spanish-Amigos' Spanish reading skills in the future.
"Student Responses." In a later study (Lambert & Cazabon, 1994), Spanish-Amigos and English-Amigos were asked to complete a questionnaire about their self-perceptions as developing bilingual speakers and about their perceptions of the program and its effectiveness. The number of students involved was small; therefore, these findings only represent trends. Some of the more significant findings include the following:
Spanish Amigos
• feel equally competent in both languages;
• feel that their writing in Spanish is stronger than their writing in English (particularly in the older grades);
• are confident that they can understand nearly everything presented in Spanish media;
• feel comfortable translating "most things."
English-Amigos
• feel their English is stronger (particularly in the younger grades);
• feel that their reading skills in Spanish are stronger than their listening, speaking, or writing skills;
• can get the main idea of Spanish media but not specific details;
• feel comfortable translating "some things, but not many&;
• feel that they are not at all behind in English but likely ahead.
Both Groups
• feel confident about their ability to teach both English and Spanish to their peers;
• favor speaking English over Spanish in any given social situation (especially the older students);
• reveal no ethnic or linguistic bias in their choice of close friends;
• perceive Hispanic Americans as they would other Americans;
• favor bilingual classes over monolingual classes;
• demonstrate confidence in themselves and the Amigos Program (Spanish-Amigos are even more emphatic on this point).
Conclusion
Overall, the Amigos program has shown positive results: Students achieve academically and socially and are pleased with the program. Parents, too, have indicated their satisfaction and are committed to keeping their children in the two-way approach for an extended period of time.
Lambert and Cazabon's use of student response to evaluate the Amigos program sheds new light on the effectiveness of a two-way bilingual program. Not only is it evident through parental support, clear academic achievement, and promising test scores that the program is successful, but the students themselves are expressing their satisfaction with Amigos as well. While students are in the process of becoming functionally bilingual, they are also forming friendships with students from other ethnic and linguistic backgrounds and learning to appreciate the diversity that is historically characteristic of American society but particularly fragile today.
References
Cazabon, M., Lambert, W., & Hall, G. (1992)."Two-Way Bilingual Education: A Progress Report on the Amigos Program." Santa Cruz, CA and Washington, DC: National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning.
Christian, D. (1994). "Two-Way Bilingual Education: Students Learning through Two Languages." Santa Cruz, CA and Washington, DC: National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning.
Collier, V. (1994). "Promising Practices in Public Schools." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Baltimore, MD.
Genesee, F. (1987). "Learning through Two Languages: Studies of Immersion and Bilingual Education." Cambridge, MA: Newbury House.
Harley, B., Allen, P., Cummins, J., & Swain, M. (Eds). (1990)."The Development of Second Language Proficiency." Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Krashen, S. D. (1991). "Bilingual Education: A Focus on Current Research." Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education.
Lambert, W., & Cazabon, M. (1994). "Students' Views of the Amigos Program" Sanata Cruz, CA and Washington, DC: National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning.
Lindholm, K. J., & Gavlek, K. (1994). "California DBE Projects: Project-Wide Evaluation Report, 1992-1993." San Jose, CA: Author.
This Digest is based on three reports published by the National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning, Two-Way Bilingual Education: Students Learning Through Two Languages, by Donna Christian, Two-Way Bilingual Education: A Progress Report on the Amigos Program, by Mary Cazabon, Wallace Lambert, and Geoff Hall, and Students' Views of the Amigos Programs, by Wallace Lambert and Mary Cazabon.
________________________________________
This report was prepared with funding from the Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education, under contract No. RR93002010. The opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect the positions or policies of OERI or ED.
Languages in Luxembourg
• The linguistic situation in Luxembourg
• Publications on "Lëtzebuergesch"
o About Lëtzebuergesch
o Dictionaries
o Learning Lëtzebuergesch
Books
Courses
• Acknowledgements
• Further information
Luxembourg: A linguistic Puzzle.
The linguistic situation in Luxembourg is characterised by the fact that several languages are spoken and written at the same time in the same place. Names of streets, shops, travel tickets, hotel registries and menus are mostly in French (some street and place names are also added in Lëtzebuergesch). Newspapers printed in the Grand Duchy are mostly in German, but some cultural articles, many advertisements and social announcements are in French. In other countries too, several languages are spoken, but they almost always are limited to specific regions, to the exclusion of other tongues. In Luxembourg, the various languages are superimposed in an almost hierarchical manner. There is, however, a certain logic to the puzzle.
On all levels of society, only one language is used in oral communication: "Lëtzebuergesch". This is the everyday spoken language of the people, and the symbol of the Luxembourgers national identity. Although of Germanic origin (around the 4th Century), 'Lëtzebuergesch' has sufficiently differentiated itself from its parent language, so as no longer to be readily understood by many a German. German native speakers might well recognise this or that word or construction used in Lëtzebuergesch -in the same way that a German from one region can 'understand' a dialect from another German region- but are often caught out by 'non-Germanic' words or turns of phrase.
'Lëtzebuergesch' is taught in schools and in language courses mostly addressed to the resident foreigners. Whilst it is an extremely practical and useful means of everyday conversation, it is a poor culture-bearer. As soon as a conversation reaches out into the higher levels of abstraction or refined sentiment, the limits of the vocabulary and grammatical constructions available are all too apparent and it becomes necessary to borrow from other languages.
This switch-over to foreign languages, namely French and German is a necessity in written communication. A number of attempts have been made to establish Lëtzebuergesch as a written language. The first real orthography for use in schools was set up in 1914 by the Education Minister Nicolas Welter, because this was when Lëtzebuergesch was for the first time taught as a school subject (Education Law of 1912). This system never became official, though a generation of Luxembourg schoolchildren became familiar with it, and the system was used by the Resistance in the second World War for the publication of their leaflets and later the newspaper D'Uni'on, which for about three years after 1945 was published entirely in Lëtzebuergesch. This became unmanageable, and they had to revert to standard German. At the same time as this was going on, the Education Minister Nicolas Margue commissioned Jean Feltes, a phonetician, to invent a new orthography for Lëtzebuergesch. This was, however, so far away from German that no guidance could be got from that language, and the new Lëzebuurjer Ortografi as it was called, even though it was made official under an Arreté ministériel of 5 June 1946, never became popular in schools, in spite of the fact that textbooks were prepared in which it was used, i.e. Lëzebuurjer Gedichter a Proosashteker fiir ons Schoulen. In 1950, a new dictionary of the Luxembourg language was commissioned under Joseph Tockert, Helene Palgen, and Robert Bruch. First they had to invent an orthography that was more transparent than that of Feltes, and closer to the German. Bruch did this, and it was used for all the volumes of the Luxemburger Wörterbuch, in a publication period which lasted from 1950 to 1978. When Bruch died in a road-crash in 1959, the work of the Dictionary publication was taken over by Henri Rinnen, who later became influential in the Actioun Lëtzebuergesch (1972ff). He of course wanted the dictionary spelling to be made official. This was done in 1976, when Feltes' system was officially dropped. From that time, Actioun Lëtzebuergesch actively promoted the new official spelling in its own publication Eis Sprooch, and elsewhere, wherever it could. Since the language law of 1984, this influence has grown, and now all signs, notices, etc appearing in Lëtzebuergesch have to be in this official orthography. If civil servants don't know it, there are courses to teach them. It is no longer possible to write Lëtzebuergesch (for publication at any rate) in any old system invented by yourself. And this is what many Luxembourgers find annoying, that for the first time they can be found guilty of misspelling their own language, a burden other nations have suffered from for centuries.
As the above brief historical overview shows, neither the artificial creation of an official orthography, nor the efforts of the linguists have been able to displace German, which - thanks to its close relationship to the vernacular - is favoured by the popular classes, or French which by virtue of its evident quality and long tradition has been the means of expression of those who see themselves as the intellectual élite. This situation is reflected whenever the use of languages exceeds the requirement of daily conversation. French is used as much as possible; German where it is indispensable, in fact, whenever the less educated public has to be reached. That is certainly not to imply that a German speaker is less well educated, but many of those folk who grew up in Luxembourg during and immediately after the second World War somehow lost out on a French education, as only German was allowed during the War, and afterwards, well, there was a country to rebuild, and perhaps not so much importance was placed on learning foreign languages.
In this way French is the official language of the authorities. Parliamentary documents, proposed bills, procedures in court, administrative and judicial acts, are held and written in French, but the synoptic accounts of parliamentary debates (themselves carried out in Lëtzebuergesch or in French) are printed in German (Analytischer Kammerbericht) because they are distributed to all households in the country. Speeches at political rallies and other public occasions are in Lëtzebuergesch. Certain texts are multilingual, depending on the need to make sure that information is brought to all levels of the population. Thus for example, when a new law relating to rents (the equivalent of the British "Landlord & Tenant Act") was brought into force, the texts of the new law were printed in the newspapers in 5 different languages, a page each. (Lëtzebuergesch, French, German, Portuguese and Spanish). The latter two were included, since many immigrants from these countries live and work in Luxembourg (some 36% of the country's population, and a staggering 48% of the country's workforce hold a foreign passport).
Historic tradition, economic necessity, and above all a genuine desire to counteract any linguistic (or other) imperialism on the part of the powerful neighbours have brought about this peculiar situation. Whilst this places a heavy burden on the educational system, it does however give the students a unique opportunity to learn many languages and thus gives access to many cultures.
From the second year of primary school onwards, French is added as a discipline to the general program of education which, at this stage is still taught in German. Over the years, however, and particularly in secondary education, French gets an ever bigger share until it completely replaces German as the language of instruction, German being limited to the specialised courses in German language and literature. English too, it should be added, is required as a compulsory language throughout most of secondary education, and students choosing language studies also have the option to add Latin and/or ancient Greek. (see also Luxembourg Schools)
It appears therefore that the Luxembourg intellectual is mainly orientated towards French cultural values through his education, the more so since he will most probably attend University either in Belgium or in France (attendance at German Universities is statistically in third place), although a Luxembourg University has recently been created. Tradition, natural sympathy and education all concur to put the Luxembourg élite within the French cultural orbit: French books and publications are widely read, written communication is mostly in French. Most of the Luxembourg periodicals aimed at the intellectual are almost entirely written in French, and so are the literary reviews and student magazines. The knowledge and understanding of German and the root relationship existing between German and the local dialect however, add a dimension of wealth and objectivity which make for a unique situation indeed.
Luxembourg is thus prepared to be widely open to foreign culture, especially because the small size of the country (999 square miles) and its population (399 239 inhabitants) hardly allow for a rich national cultural life of high standard.
An open-minded attitude to foreign culture permits Luxembourg to escape the narrowness of provincial thought and life. In fact, the intensity and diversity of cultural life in Luxembourg is surprising. The theatre season regularly brings to Luxembourg outstanding performances by the best companies of France, Germany and Belgium. The more popular cinemas play throughout the year the whole range of the international film productions in their original language. A favourable geographic location brings into the Luxembourg homes radio and television programs from France, Germany and Belgium in addition to the Luxembourg national ones. Satellite television with its worldwide network is very popular. The ASTRA ground control station is situated in the Grand Duchy.
The possibility to use several languages of high civilisation as cultural instruments is certainly an advantage, but there are also drawbacks. Lacking its own spiritual roots, the Luxembourg writer is almost doomed to a certain creative sterility because he can very seldom manage to really make his own a tongue that he learned at school and has only occasionally spoken. Critical consciousness of a foreign language is thus more common than partaking in its proper and peculiar imagination and sentiment.
It would seem that only the mother tongue, which one thinks and speaks, is really an instrument of original creation. And in fact, within the evident limitations imposed by the relative poverty of the local dialect, Luxembourg writers are creative, especially in lyrical poetry and local theatre which more often are spoken rather than written media. (See also: Edition Phi, the main publisher in Luxembourg for books on Lëtzebuergesch Literature and Theatre). Luxembourg writers in German are dealing with an instrument close to their mother tongue and familiar to all readers. Certainly "Luxembourg" high German seldom achieves the purity and exactness of genuine German, but the "Luxembourgisms" lend their works a local flavour which makes them somehow true and genuine. In that respect, the Luxembourger writing in French is less favoured. He faces the refinements and intricacies of a completely foreign language learned and cultivated in Germanic territory. He seldom reaches the higher realms of creativity, unless he expatriates himself into completely French surroundings. And the public moreover is likely to prefer the Paris literary production to his own. He is at his best as an often brilliant critic, essayist or scientific writer, where he can take full advantage of his unique participation in two cultural worlds of equally high standard.
As with all questions of languages, borders are not so easily drawn. Hence it should come as no surprise that the political boundaries of the Grand Duchy do not sharply delimit the situation depicted above. Indeed, in the surrounding areas of Luxembourg, many people have grown up with a variant of our Luxembourgish lingua: the "Platt" of Lorraine is similarly connected to middle-high German [Rhinefrankish, Moselfrankish and Lëtzebuergesch], yet the area (nowadays) is part of France; many inhabitants of the so-called "Areler Land" just inside Belgium also grew up speaking Lëzebuergesch, yet they are imbued with French all around them; ... Since a lot of these adjacent regions are similarly - though perhaps not to quite the same extent - shaped by both German and French culture, the whole area around Luxembourg can truly be called a Franco-German Cultural Melting Pot.
Publications on "Lëtzebuergesch"
Readers may be interested to hear that there are a number of books available on the language of Luxembourg. Here's a list of some of the more interesting publications available, by sections:
• About Lëtzebuergesch
• Dictionaries
• Learning Lëtzebuergesch
Some of the information below is taken from Jul Christophory's book: "A Short History of Literature in Luxembourgish" (1994 Bibliothèque Nationale - ISBN2-87980-011-0)
About Lëtzebuergesch
o Luxembourg & Lëtzebuergesch, Language and Communication at the Crossroads of Europe
by Dr Gerald Newton, Director of the Centre for Luxembourg Studies at the University of Sheffield
Oxford University Press (21st March 1996) ISBN 0-19-824016-3
The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg sits at the heart of the European Union, yet it forms a very private and close-knit community. This book addresses that apparent paradox, and shows how it is reflected in and sustained by the linguistic practices of the people who live there, both native and foreign. Lëtzebuergesch, the country's national language, is most closely related to the German dialects of the western Rhineland and the Moselle river valley, but the country's historical and cultural links with Belgium, the Netherlands, and France are much closer than with Germany. Since the demise of Latin in the late Middle Ages as the language of administration, that role has been filled at various times by the standard varieties of French and German. Since 1945, French and Lëtzebuergesch have come to predominate and the use of German has once again receded. It is the unwritten social code governing the use of these languages (and latterly also of English) which gives this volume of specially commissioned papers its focus: the purpose is to provide an insider's view of the community, and of its little-known language. The book contains the most detailed linguistic description of Lëtzebuergesch so far available in English."
o Who's afraid of Luxembourgish? Lëtzebuergesch? Qui a peur du Luxembourgeois? Bilingual guide to Luxembourgish conversation
Jul Christophory. Luxembourg. Imprimerie Bourg-Bourger, 1979, 120 p.
About a third of Luxembourg's population consists of foreigners. This Luxembourg phrase-book with English and French translation was compiled for all English- and French-speaking people living in Luxembourg. By presenting them with dialogues and vocabulary for about thirty everyday situations, it sets out to give an insight into Luxembourgish as spoken by the average inhabitant.
[Note: Don't be confused: The book is really trilingual, as one reader -while qualifying it as "a fine book for its genre"- quite correctly remarked.
The book is, however, subtitled: "bilingual guide". ]
o German dialects: Phonology and Morphology with selected texts
R.E.Keller. Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1961. 369 p. map. bibliog.
This book affords the student of German a descriptive phonological and grammatical survey of certain dialects. Keller devotes chapters to Schwyzerdütsch, Alsatian, Darmstadt dialect, Upper Austrian, Lëtzebuergesch, Westphalian and North Saxon (lower Elbe). The chapter on Lëtzebuergesch (p.248-99) is subdivided into phonology, morphology, an extract from Michel Rodange's De Renert, notes and glossary. It offers a very proficient and systematic survey of the area, status and general characteristics of Luxembourgish. The whole book constitutes a unique comparative study and stimulating starting-point for further research.
o Luxembourgeois, Qui êtes-vous? Echos et chuchotements by Jul Christophory
(Ed. Guy Binsfeld) An interesting essay to characterize the Lëtzebuerger
Dictionaries
o Luxemburger Wörterbuch (5 Volumes)
Ed. Paul Linden 1950/54; reprint 1978 Joseph Beffort
Members of the original Dictionary commission: J. Tockert, R. Bruch, R. Palgen, I Comes, J. Hess, E. Ludovicy, J. Meyers, J.P. Zanen.
Members of the 1976 Dictionary commission: H. Rinnen, A. Atten, H. Palgen, G. Reuland, T. Schroeder, P.Schumacher, E. Steinmetzer, M. Werdel, P. Jost, H. Klees, E. Leytem, F. Lorang, C. Meder, V. Rasqu, J.Scheer, O. Scholer.
This book has been defined by some as the "ultimate" Luxembourg dictionary. It lists Lëtzebuergesch words and defines them in standard German, along with examples of their use (eg idioms). It was published in instalments, between 1950 and 1978, the last volume (5) being a supplement of what they had forgotten to include. A new Commission for a new Dictionary was set up in 1994, but since the government didn't grant any money towards compiling the dictionary, and they couldn't find anybody willing to do the compiling anyway, the whole thing was abandoned, and a decision taken instead to reprint the 5 volumes unchanged, except for being compressed into 2 volumes. This came out in 1995/96, distributed by Librairie Krauss. It costs about 160 UK pound.
o English-Lëtzebuergesch Dictionary by Jules Christophory
(New edition, 1996) consisting of 35 000 words
ISBN 2-87 953-015-6
Editions Schortgen
Jean-Paul Schortgen
121 rue de l'Alzette
L-4011 Esch-sur-Alzette
Tel: (+352) 54 64 87
Fax: (+352) 53 05 34
o 6000 Wierder
(6000 essential Luxembourgish words are translated from Lëtzebuergesch into French, German, English, Spanish and Portuguese by Jacqui Zimmer)
Editions: Imprimerie St Paul ISBN 2 879 631 777
2 rue Christophe Plantin
Z.I. Luxembourg-Gasperich
L-2988 Luxembourg
Learning Lëtzebuergesch
o "Parler Luxembourgeois / Esou Schwaetze mir / Living Luxembourgish" by Gilbert Sondag, Josiane Kartheiser, Henry Wickens
Editions Le Phare, Esch-sur-Alzette, 1996, pp. 347.
o "L wei Lëtzebuergesch. Lëtzebuergesch fir all Dag"
Book and Cassette made by the "Centre de Langues Luxembourg".
Luxembourg Ministry of Education. Provisional Edition 1993."
o Mir schwätze Lëtzebuergesch. Nous parlons luxembourgeois. Abécédaire luxembourgeois. Guide bilingue de grammaire et de lecture.
(We speak Luxembourgish. Luxembourgish primer. Bilingual guide to grammar and reading.)
Jul Christophory. Luxembourg: Imprimerie Saint-Paul, 1974. 167p.
This textbook was written for the English- and French-speaking communities living in Luxembourg. It is a complement to the phrase-book: Who's afraid of Luxembourgish? Part I provides essential data on Luxembourgish; Part II is a closer study of the main grammatical features; Part III gives a survey of the literary scene and quotes extracts from the most popular authors (with English and French translations).
o Da lass - mir léiere Lëtzebuergesch
Video cassette (240 minutes) + Two books (Vol1: 160 pages / 600 colour illustrations; Vol2: 262 pages / 700 colour illustrations)
Learn the Luxembourg language in 20 interesting lessons, complete with grammatical, phonetic and lexicographic elements, as well as (solved) exercises.
This publication is available from the "Service central des Imprimés de l'Etat" : 22, rue des Bruyères / L-1274 Howald Tel:+352 49 88 11 1; Fax: +352 40 08 81, at a cost of 49.58 Euro for volumes I and II, and 40.01 Euro for volume III. Postage and Packing will be charged additionally (some 12 Euro for despatch to a GB address)
o A most interesting site on learning how to spell Lëtzebuergesch is at: www.al.lu/yuppi. (though you'll have to know the language already as the site works in Lëtzebuergesch).
o An interactive CD "Learn Luxembourgish" has been launched at the end of 2006 by EuroTalk Interactive in their "Talk Now" series covering more than 100 languages.
Subtitled "Essential words and Phrases for absolute beginners", this CD is a fun way of learning the rudiments of Lëtzebuergesch through simple words and common phrases. Interactive quizzes and games help the budding speaker check the acquired material and compare his/her pronounciation to the correct way through speech recordings. More advanced language CDs for Luxembourgish are in the planning, please check the EuroTalk web site.
The CD works on Windows™ 98/2000/ME/XP/Vista as well as Mac OS 9 or X.
It costs £24.99, and is available through the EuroTalk website and in high streets the world over.
See also www.language.lu
o (Free) videos on learning Lëtzebuergesch are on YouTube
o Let'z Learn Video lessons for learning Lëtzebuergesch
o NEW Learn Luxembourgish in London!
Get in on this course while the recruitment is still open. A unique chance to learn Lëtzebuergesch -taught by a Luxembourger- whilst living in London.
________________________________________
Several organisations in Luxembourg can assist with learning Lëtzebuergesch, in day-time and/or evening Language Courses:
Ministère de l'Education Nationale
Lycée Technique du Centre
106 Avenue Pasteur
L-2309 Luxembourg
Tel: (+352) 2478 5153
Centre de Langues et de Culture
80, Boulevard General Patton
L-2316 Luxembourg
Tel: (+352) - 40 39 41
International Language Centre / Prolingua
140 Rue Adolphe Fischer
L-1521 Luxembourg
Tel: (+352) 40 39 91 / 40 39 92
Luxembourg - Accueil - Information
10 Bisserwé
L-1238 Luxembourg
Tel: (+352) 24 17 17 (9 - 12 a.m.)
Ecole privée GrandJean
7 Rue Adolphe Fischer
L-1521 Luxembourg
Tel: (+352) 49 17 92
CELAC - Centre Européen des Langues et de la Communication
2 Circuit de la Foire Internationale
L-1347 Luxembourg
Tel: (+352) 42 62 30 312
ASTI - a.s.b.l. - Association de Soutien aux Travailleurs Immigrés
10 Rue Auguste Laval
L-1922 Luxembourg
Tel: (+352) 43 83 33
Service International de Formation Langues - inlingua
72 Rue du Cimetière
L-1338 Luxembourg
Tel: (+352) 40 35 47
Fax: (+352) 40 35 48
Languages.lu
Clara Moraru
6, rue Marguerite de Brabant
L- 1254 Luxembourg-Merl
Tel: (+352) 26 47 85 03
Fax: (+352) 26 47 85 04
Language courses, translations, interpretations, and more.
Also offers online courses in Luxembourgish
YES academy
10, rue C.M. Spoo
L-2546 Luxemburg
Tel: (+352) 27 99 21 54
Fax: (+352) 27 99 2154
jp.piazzolla@yesacademy.lu
"YES academy" currently offers language courses in English, French, German, Italian, Luxemburgish, Portuguese, Russian and Spanish.
Info-Accueil
9 Rue Chimay
Tel: (+352) 47 96 27 51
Fax: (+352) 46 06 35
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge contributions from Dr Gerald Newton, Director of the Centre for Luxembourg Studies at the University of Sheffield, and participants of the "alt.letzebuerger" usenet newsgroup.
Further information about Lëtzebuergesch
• www.eis-sprooch.lu A stunning site about all things Lëtzebuergesch. Compliments to the makers!
• The Institut Grand-Ducal, Section de Linguistique, de Folklore et de Toponymie, who have contributed to the Luxemburger Wörterbuch, is now available via email. The Secretary is Henri Klees at henri.klees@ci.rech.lu and Ralph Fichtner, who is currently employed to put the archive on computer, is at ralph.fichtner@ci.educ.lu
• At www.igd-leo.lu/igd-leo/onomastics/villages/villages.html is a most useful gazetteer of villages and towns, explaining Luxembourg Place names.
Jean ENSCH (email: jean.ensch@ci.rech.lu), the creator of the above page(s), writes: "Due to its particular situation on the French-German language frontier, Luxembourg place names have the peculiarity of having sometimes 3 differents versions according to the French, German or Luxembourgish languages used. Therefore the alphabetical lists of place names are presented in three different language series, each giving the corresponding version in the two other languages. Moreover, the name of the municipality these villages administratively belong to is also supplied. A clickable map, indicating the municipal boundaries is also availabe at this site."
• An interesting discussion on the economic weight of the Luxembourg language (De l'importance économique du luxembourgeois) followed by an article on the French language use in Luxembourg "Parlez français, s.v.p.!" is at: www.igd-leo.lu/igd-leo/linguistics/baleine/igdbaleine.html
• "La situation linguistique sur le marché du travail" - The linguistic situation on the jobmarket in Luxembourg.
PDF document (in the French language) published by the "Comité de Liaison et d'Action des Etrangers".
• Literary Life in Luxembourg
• Centre National de Littérature
• Languages in Europe (BBC)
• ... eis Sprooch To help keep our language -the symbol of our national identity- alive, this site by the "Lycée Michel Rodange" gives some texts of Luxembourg poems, and also has a number of audio files available for download
• Centre de Langues Luxembourg (CLL) ALTE
• The Lëtzebuerger Online Dictionnaire is a multilingual dictionary of Luxemburgish words with translations into German, French, English and Portuguese. Word usage is illustrated by examples in Luxemburgish. Relevant grammatical information complements semantic and lexical information and possible synonyms. It is also possible to display a conjugation table for each verb and a declension table for each adjective. Entries can be accessed by entering the Luxemburgish the translated word. Thus, depending on the specific needs and language skills of the user, the dictionary can be used both as an aid to understanding a Luxemburgish term and as a translation tool. The spelling of Luxemburgish words respects the rules set out in the Grand Ducal Regulation of 1999 (Règlement grand-ducal). At present words beginning with A-G may be accessed via the search engine.
• About languages in Luxembourg - An indepth article beautifully presented (pdf) and well worth reading indeed.
http://www.luxembourg.co.uk/lingua.html
BILINGUAL SENTENCE PROCESSING, 134
To order this title, and for more information, click here
Edited By
Roberto Heredia, Texas A&M International University
J. Altarriba, Department of Psychology, State University of New York, Albany, NY, USA
Included in series
Advances in Psychology, 134
Description
Bilingual Sentence Processing provides an overview of the literature on bilingual sentence processing from a psycholinguistic and linguistic perspective. The editors have chosen noted researchers in the field of bilingual language processing. Research focuses on both the visual and spoken modalities including specific areas of research interest including an integrated review of methods and the utility of those methods which allows readers to have the appropriate background and context for the chapters that follow. Next, issues surrounding acquisition and pragmatic usage are covered with a focus on code-switching and the actual parsing of sentence material both within and between languages. Third, issues regarding memory, placing language in a broader context, are explored as the connection between language, memory, and perception is reviewed for bilingual speakers. Finally, all of this work has direct implications for educational settings–specifically issues surrounding the assessment of proficiency, the development and nature of dominance, and the acquisition of reading skills and reading comprehension for bilingual speakers.
Audience
For both the novice and the experienced researcher in the fields of cognitive science, artificial intelligence, communication and information processing, psycholinguistics and linguists.
Contents
Acknowledgements. Preface (G.B. Simpson). Introduction and overview (J. Altarriba, R.R. Heredia).
Methods in Bilingual Research.
On-line methods in bilingual spoken language research (R.R. Heredia, M.T. Stewart).
Connectionist Models of Second Language Processing and Bilingualism.
Extending the competition model (B. MacWhinney). A self-organizing connectionist model of bilingual processing (Ping Li, I. Farkas).
Memory Representation in Sentence Processing.
Cross-language facilitation, semantic blindness, and the relation between language and memory: replications of Altarriba and Soltano (1996) and support for a new theory (D.G. MacKay et al.). The use of sentence contexts in reading, memory, and semantic disambiguation (J. Altarriba, J.L. Gianico). Exploring language asymmetries in early Spanish-English bilinguals: the role of lexical and sentential context effects (A.E. Hernández). Text comprehension in bilinguals: integrating perspectives on language representation and text processing (G.E. Raney et al.).
Psycholinguistic Theory and Research.
Relative clause attachment in bilinguals and monolinguals (E.M. Fernández). An on-line look at sentence processing in the second language (C. Frenck-Mestre). Cross-linguistic aspects of anaphor resolution (D. Hillert).
Figurative Language Processing.
Understanding phrasal verbs in monolinguals and bilinguals (T. Matlock, R.R. Heredia). What native and non-native speakers' images for idioms tell us about figurative language (H. Bortfeld).
Language Skill Development in Bilingual Children.
The role of formal definitions in reading comprehension of bilingual students (A.Y. Durgunoğlu et al.). Syntactic structure, grammatical accuracy, and content in second-language writing: an analysis of skill learning and on-line processing (W.S. Francis et al.). Code switching in preschool bilingual children (Z. Peynircioğlu, A.Y. Durgunğlu). Authors' information. Author index. Subject index.
Bibliographic details
Hardbound, 390 pages, publication date: JUL-2002
ISBN-13: 978-0-444-50847-8
ISBN-10: 0-444-50847-3
Imprint: NORTH-HOLLAND
http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/bookdescription.cws_home/622603/description#description
One Person, One Language
The OPOL Method for Raising a Bilingual Child
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Feb 21, 2009 Margaret M. Williams
A popular method for teaching young children to speak multiple languages, the One Person, One Language system has both advantages and challenges for the bilingual family.
Jeff grew up speaking both Spanish and English. Caroline, speaks only English. They want their new baby to grow up bilingual, and they have chosen the “One Person, One Language” (OPOL) method of language learning to teach their son.
The OPOL method is one of the most widely used bilingual language learning systems in the world, according to Dr. Barbara Zurer Pearson in her book Raising a Bilingual Child [Living Language/Random House, 2008]. With OPOL, each parent speaks only the language that is native to that parent when communicating with the child. Children quickly learn to associate a particular language with the appropriate parent.
The Advantages of Bilingual Parenting Using the OPOL Language Learning System
The primary advantage to the OPOL method is that children grow up able to communicate with the extended family of the parent who speaks the minority (non-community-based) language as easily as with the family and community of the majority language speaker .
OPOL is a flexible strategy for raising multilingual children. For example, if both parents are equally bilingual themselves, either parent can be assigned as the consistent speaker of the minority language. In a situation in which each parent speaks a different minority language, they can each speak that language with their child and let the community be the teacher of the majority language. In this way their children will grow up trilingual.
If the family is mobile, such that the majority language of the community is likely to change from time to time, the core languages spoken in the home can remain constant.
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The Disadvantages of the OPOL Method of Language Learning for Bilingual Families
As in any bilingual learning situation, the kids may, on occasion, mix the languages, even inventing words based on early confusions. However, according to Dr. Pearson, over time the languages will sort themselves out.
Drs. Kendall King and Alison Mackey, in their book The Bilingual Edge [HarperCollins Publishers, 2007], caution that if the minority language speaking parent is also one who, for various reasons, spends less time with the children, the majority, or community, language could become overly dominant. Unless the parent of the minority language has an absolute expectation that their children will be truly bilingual, they might very well become “passive” bilinguals rather than “active” ones, listening to the minority language parent in one language but answering in the other.
On the other hand, if the parent who speaks the minority language is the primary caretaker of the child, it may be difficult to maintain the minority language when out of the home and in the community. For some it may feel awkward to speak to the child in the target language when others are speaking to him or her in the language of the community. It will take resolve and determination to continue to communicate in the desired second language in a variety of contexts.
With only one source of language model, it is possible that the minority language will not develop as strongly or as accurately as the majority language. However, this can be corrected with additional educational experiences. In the same vein, if there is no formal schooling available in the minority language, the child might learn to speak well enough, but might not have adequate exposure to reading and writing that language – another correctable situation.
Tips for Facilitating the OPOL Language Instruction Approach to Raising Bilingual Children
Avoid the temptation to explicitly correct mistakes in grammar, particularly in the minority language. Dr. Zurer’s experience with early language development indicates that such interruptions in the flow of conversation can be more frustrating than helpful to the young language learner.
Consider finding multiple sources of exposure to the minority language. Being able to speak with a variety of people in a variety of settings will give the child opportunities to expand vocabulary and improve language skills.
Have patience and be determined. Families who are resolved and committed to teaching their children using the OPOL method report very good results.
There are many methods for raising a child to be bilingual. The One Person, One Language method is the most popular world-wide. Children learn to associate a specific language with a specific parent, and very little confusion is reported. However, parents will face challenges with this method depending on the amount of time each parent spends with the child and how strong the pull of the community language is. However, with a belief in the importance of raising a child to speak two languages, a strong determination to succeed, and an absolute expectation that the child can and will speak both languages, the OPOL strategy has proven to be very successful.
Read more at Suite101: One Person, One Language: The OPOL Method for Raising a Bilingual Child http://languagestudy.suite101.com/article.cfm/one_person_one_language#ixzz0p6LR0G3D
http://languagestudy.suite101.com/article.cfm/one_person_one_language
Online Resources: Digests
July 1999
EDO-FL-99-03
Two-Way Bilingual Education Programs in Practice: A National and Local Perspective
National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning
Two-way bilingual education (also known as bilingual immersion, two-way immersion, developmental bilingual, and dual language programs) has taken root in many schools across the United States. In these programs, students develop dual language proficiency by receiving instruction in English and another language in a classroom that is usually comprised of half native speakers of English and half native speakers of the target language. While Spanish is currently the most common target language represented in two-way programs, other programs support learning through Cantonese, Korean, Japanese, Navajo, Russian, Portuguese, and French. Two-way programs provide both sets of students with ample exposure to the two languages, allowing them to progress academically in both languages and gain an appreciation of another culture.
Two-way bilingual programs work toward academic, language, and affective goals. Language minority students benefit from the opportunity to develop and learn through their native language as well as English (Krashen, 1991), and English speakers achieve well academically in an immersion environment (Genesee, 1987; Harley, Allen, Cummins, & Swain, 1990). The additive bilingual environment supports development of both languages and enhances students' self-esteem and cross-cultural understanding (Christian, 1994).
Implementation Issues
The two-way curriculum is content based and focuses on the development of strong academic achievement in both languages. Because students learn content through a language they do not speak natively, techniques that make instruction more comprehensible are preferred. The strategies teachers use most often include experiential or hands-on activities, thematic units, peer interaction, multiple cues that give students additional chances to master concepts (e.g., a graphic representation such as a semantic web followed by discussion or direct experience on a field trip), and whole language approaches.
While the goals of two-way bilingual programs generally remain constant, the methods through which these goals are realized depend largely on local conditions, demographics, and community attitudes. As a result, each program makes a selection from a variety of modes of instruction. For example, a program may allocate the two languages by content (e.g., social studies and math are taught in Spanish, while science, arts, and music are taught in English); by time (e.g., instruction in each language on alternate days); or by person (e.g., one teacher uses only Cantonese and another uses only English). Some programs operate as magnets within their districts; others are strictly neighborhood based.
Two-way programs also follow different language development models. The two most popular are the "50/50" model, in which the students receive instruction for equal amounts of time in the two languages, and the "90/10" model, in which about 90% of the instruction is in the target language with about 10% in English in the early grades, gradually moving toward 50/50 in the upper grades. The way in which students are integrated varies somewhat as well. Many programs never separate the students based on their language background, while others provide specific second language instruction to segregated groups every day. However, as Christian (1994) points out, cross-group interaction helps students realize the full benefits of the two-way approach, since the presence of native speakers of both language groups makes the environment of two-way programs more conducive to second language learning.
Future Directions and Concerns
As noted, choices in program design and instruction must be made as two-way programs are planned, but the effects of various alternatives are not fully known. Another concern is articulation: There are few two-way programs that continue on to the secondary level. Because target language development and maintenance require ongoing support, students' proficiency in the target language may decline after they enter secondary school.
A growing area of interest is the development of two-way bilingual programs in diverse languages. Although Spanish is the most common target language used in these programs at this time, some communities where other languages are predominant may benefit from two-way programs. Interest also prevails in establishing programs at the secondary level to continue target language development and maintenance. Community and parental support are crucial for the creation and prolonged existence of these programs.
Emerging Results of Two-Way Bilingual Programs
Various reports and statistics reveal that the two-way approach is effective not only in the teaching of two languages to both language groups but also in the development of academic excellence. Lindholm and Gavlek (1994) cite examples of schools with two-way programs where student achievement on several standardized tests - including math achievement tests in English and Spanish - demonstrate academic progress as well as fluency in both languages. While the researchers noticed major variations within and across school sites, it was clear that the students were achieving the desired levels of bilingual proficiency. Ongoing research by Collier (1994) in five urban districts shows that language minority (Hispanic) students in two-way programs experience more long-term educational gains than students in other bilingual or English as a second language (ESL) programs.
The Amigos Program: A Local View
"Design of the Program." The Amigos program was established in Cambridge, MA in 1985-1986 and now serves nearly 300 students. It was the result of a collaborative effort of parents, teachers, and administrators of the Cambridge Public Schools who wished to develop a program that would combine the best features of transitional bilingual education for limited-English-proficient (LEP) students and language immersion for native English speakers. Following the "50/50" model, the Amigos Program is comprised of 50% LEP Hispanics and 50% non-Hispanic English speakers. Each class consists of a Spanish-speaking teacher and an English-speaking teacher who maintain separate language environments for the students. Student progress is evaluated through standardized tests and portfolio assessment (Cazabon, Lambert, & Hall, 1992).
"Assessment of the Program." Cazabon, Lambert, and Hall (1992) compared students in the Amigos program with two separate groups of students in the Cambridge Public Schools: the English-Amigos were compared with English controls (native English speakers) from an all-English public school program and the Spanish-Amigos were compared with Spanish controls (native Spanish speakers) in a standard bilingual education program. These control groups were equated with Amigos students on social class background and a non-verbal measure of intelligence (Raven's test). A series of tests were given to the Amigos and to the comparison groups in order to determine the students' achievement in both languages. Because the tests differ in the way they measure students' language skills and academic achievement, the combination of the following results is even more indicative of the program's success.
English-Amigos performed generally better on the California Achievement Test than the English controls; the Spanish-Amigos scored above the norm and higher than the Spanish controls on the same test. Both English-Amigos and Spanish-Amigos scored higher on English-based math tests, showing the Spanish-Amigos' ability to apply English to another subject area. On Spanish language tests, both English-Amigos and Spanish-Amigos demonstrated grade-level progress in reading and math; however, because the Spanish-Amigos' reading skills were somewhat below that of the Spanish controls, the Amigos program intends to focus on improving the Spanish-Amigos' Spanish reading skills in the future.
"Student Responses." In a later study (Lambert & Cazabon, 1994), Spanish-Amigos and English-Amigos were asked to complete a questionnaire about their self-perceptions as developing bilingual speakers and about their perceptions of the program and its effectiveness. The number of students involved was small; therefore, these findings only represent trends. Some of the more significant findings include the following:
Spanish Amigos
• feel equally competent in both languages;
• feel that their writing in Spanish is stronger than their writing in English (particularly in the older grades);
• are confident that they can understand nearly everything presented in Spanish media;
• feel comfortable translating "most things."
English-Amigos
• feel their English is stronger (particularly in the younger grades);
• feel that their reading skills in Spanish are stronger than their listening, speaking, or writing skills;
• can get the main idea of Spanish media but not specific details;
• feel comfortable translating "some things, but not many&;
• feel that they are not at all behind in English but likely ahead.
Both Groups
• feel confident about their ability to teach both English and Spanish to their peers;
• favor speaking English over Spanish in any given social situation (especially the older students);
• reveal no ethnic or linguistic bias in their choice of close friends;
• perceive Hispanic Americans as they would other Americans;
• favor bilingual classes over monolingual classes;
• demonstrate confidence in themselves and the Amigos Program (Spanish-Amigos are even more emphatic on this point).
Conclusion
Overall, the Amigos program has shown positive results: Students achieve academically and socially and are pleased with the program. Parents, too, have indicated their satisfaction and are committed to keeping their children in the two-way approach for an extended period of time.
Lambert and Cazabon's use of student response to evaluate the Amigos program sheds new light on the effectiveness of a two-way bilingual program. Not only is it evident through parental support, clear academic achievement, and promising test scores that the program is successful, but the students themselves are expressing their satisfaction with Amigos as well. While students are in the process of becoming functionally bilingual, they are also forming friendships with students from other ethnic and linguistic backgrounds and learning to appreciate the diversity that is historically characteristic of American society but particularly fragile today.
References
Cazabon, M., Lambert, W., & Hall, G. (1992)."Two-Way Bilingual Education: A Progress Report on the Amigos Program." Santa Cruz, CA and Washington, DC: National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning.
Christian, D. (1994). "Two-Way Bilingual Education: Students Learning through Two Languages." Santa Cruz, CA and Washington, DC: National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning.
Collier, V. (1994). "Promising Practices in Public Schools." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Baltimore, MD.
Genesee, F. (1987). "Learning through Two Languages: Studies of Immersion and Bilingual Education." Cambridge, MA: Newbury House.
Harley, B., Allen, P., Cummins, J., & Swain, M. (Eds). (1990)."The Development of Second Language Proficiency." Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Krashen, S. D. (1991). "Bilingual Education: A Focus on Current Research." Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education.
Lambert, W., & Cazabon, M. (1994). "Students' Views of the Amigos Program" Sanata Cruz, CA and Washington, DC: National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning.
Lindholm, K. J., & Gavlek, K. (1994). "California DBE Projects: Project-Wide Evaluation Report, 1992-1993." San Jose, CA: Author.
This Digest is based on three reports published by the National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning, Two-Way Bilingual Education: Students Learning Through Two Languages, by Donna Christian, Two-Way Bilingual Education: A Progress Report on the Amigos Program, by Mary Cazabon, Wallace Lambert, and Geoff Hall, and Students' Views of the Amigos Programs, by Wallace Lambert and Mary Cazabon.
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This report was prepared with funding from the Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education, under contract No. RR93002010. The opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect the positions or policies of OERI or ED.
Languages in Luxembourg
• The linguistic situation in Luxembourg
• Publications on "Lëtzebuergesch"
o About Lëtzebuergesch
o Dictionaries
o Learning Lëtzebuergesch
Books
Courses
• Acknowledgements
• Further information
Luxembourg: A linguistic Puzzle.
The linguistic situation in Luxembourg is characterised by the fact that several languages are spoken and written at the same time in the same place. Names of streets, shops, travel tickets, hotel registries and menus are mostly in French (some street and place names are also added in Lëtzebuergesch). Newspapers printed in the Grand Duchy are mostly in German, but some cultural articles, many advertisements and social announcements are in French. In other countries too, several languages are spoken, but they almost always are limited to specific regions, to the exclusion of other tongues. In Luxembourg, the various languages are superimposed in an almost hierarchical manner. There is, however, a certain logic to the puzzle.
On all levels of society, only one language is used in oral communication: "Lëtzebuergesch". This is the everyday spoken language of the people, and the symbol of the Luxembourgers national identity. Although of Germanic origin (around the 4th Century), 'Lëtzebuergesch' has sufficiently differentiated itself from its parent language, so as no longer to be readily understood by many a German. German native speakers might well recognise this or that word or construction used in Lëtzebuergesch -in the same way that a German from one region can 'understand' a dialect from another German region- but are often caught out by 'non-Germanic' words or turns of phrase.
'Lëtzebuergesch' is taught in schools and in language courses mostly addressed to the resident foreigners. Whilst it is an extremely practical and useful means of everyday conversation, it is a poor culture-bearer. As soon as a conversation reaches out into the higher levels of abstraction or refined sentiment, the limits of the vocabulary and grammatical constructions available are all too apparent and it becomes necessary to borrow from other languages.
This switch-over to foreign languages, namely French and German is a necessity in written communication. A number of attempts have been made to establish Lëtzebuergesch as a written language. The first real orthography for use in schools was set up in 1914 by the Education Minister Nicolas Welter, because this was when Lëtzebuergesch was for the first time taught as a school subject (Education Law of 1912). This system never became official, though a generation of Luxembourg schoolchildren became familiar with it, and the system was used by the Resistance in the second World War for the publication of their leaflets and later the newspaper D'Uni'on, which for about three years after 1945 was published entirely in Lëtzebuergesch. This became unmanageable, and they had to revert to standard German. At the same time as this was going on, the Education Minister Nicolas Margue commissioned Jean Feltes, a phonetician, to invent a new orthography for Lëtzebuergesch. This was, however, so far away from German that no guidance could be got from that language, and the new Lëzebuurjer Ortografi as it was called, even though it was made official under an Arreté ministériel of 5 June 1946, never became popular in schools, in spite of the fact that textbooks were prepared in which it was used, i.e. Lëzebuurjer Gedichter a Proosashteker fiir ons Schoulen. In 1950, a new dictionary of the Luxembourg language was commissioned under Joseph Tockert, Helene Palgen, and Robert Bruch. First they had to invent an orthography that was more transparent than that of Feltes, and closer to the German. Bruch did this, and it was used for all the volumes of the Luxemburger Wörterbuch, in a publication period which lasted from 1950 to 1978. When Bruch died in a road-crash in 1959, the work of the Dictionary publication was taken over by Henri Rinnen, who later became influential in the Actioun Lëtzebuergesch (1972ff). He of course wanted the dictionary spelling to be made official. This was done in 1976, when Feltes' system was officially dropped. From that time, Actioun Lëtzebuergesch actively promoted the new official spelling in its own publication Eis Sprooch, and elsewhere, wherever it could. Since the language law of 1984, this influence has grown, and now all signs, notices, etc appearing in Lëtzebuergesch have to be in this official orthography. If civil servants don't know it, there are courses to teach them. It is no longer possible to write Lëtzebuergesch (for publication at any rate) in any old system invented by yourself. And this is what many Luxembourgers find annoying, that for the first time they can be found guilty of misspelling their own language, a burden other nations have suffered from for centuries.
As the above brief historical overview shows, neither the artificial creation of an official orthography, nor the efforts of the linguists have been able to displace German, which - thanks to its close relationship to the vernacular - is favoured by the popular classes, or French which by virtue of its evident quality and long tradition has been the means of expression of those who see themselves as the intellectual élite. This situation is reflected whenever the use of languages exceeds the requirement of daily conversation. French is used as much as possible; German where it is indispensable, in fact, whenever the less educated public has to be reached. That is certainly not to imply that a German speaker is less well educated, but many of those folk who grew up in Luxembourg during and immediately after the second World War somehow lost out on a French education, as only German was allowed during the War, and afterwards, well, there was a country to rebuild, and perhaps not so much importance was placed on learning foreign languages.
In this way French is the official language of the authorities. Parliamentary documents, proposed bills, procedures in court, administrative and judicial acts, are held and written in French, but the synoptic accounts of parliamentary debates (themselves carried out in Lëtzebuergesch or in French) are printed in German (Analytischer Kammerbericht) because they are distributed to all households in the country. Speeches at political rallies and other public occasions are in Lëtzebuergesch. Certain texts are multilingual, depending on the need to make sure that information is brought to all levels of the population. Thus for example, when a new law relating to rents (the equivalent of the British "Landlord & Tenant Act") was brought into force, the texts of the new law were printed in the newspapers in 5 different languages, a page each. (Lëtzebuergesch, French, German, Portuguese and Spanish). The latter two were included, since many immigrants from these countries live and work in Luxembourg (some 36% of the country's population, and a staggering 48% of the country's workforce hold a foreign passport).
Historic tradition, economic necessity, and above all a genuine desire to counteract any linguistic (or other) imperialism on the part of the powerful neighbours have brought about this peculiar situation. Whilst this places a heavy burden on the educational system, it does however give the students a unique opportunity to learn many languages and thus gives access to many cultures.
From the second year of primary school onwards, French is added as a discipline to the general program of education which, at this stage is still taught in German. Over the years, however, and particularly in secondary education, French gets an ever bigger share until it completely replaces German as the language of instruction, German being limited to the specialised courses in German language and literature. English too, it should be added, is required as a compulsory language throughout most of secondary education, and students choosing language studies also have the option to add Latin and/or ancient Greek. (see also Luxembourg Schools)
It appears therefore that the Luxembourg intellectual is mainly orientated towards French cultural values through his education, the more so since he will most probably attend University either in Belgium or in France (attendance at German Universities is statistically in third place), although a Luxembourg University has recently been created. Tradition, natural sympathy and education all concur to put the Luxembourg élite within the French cultural orbit: French books and publications are widely read, written communication is mostly in French. Most of the Luxembourg periodicals aimed at the intellectual are almost entirely written in French, and so are the literary reviews and student magazines. The knowledge and understanding of German and the root relationship existing between German and the local dialect however, add a dimension of wealth and objectivity which make for a unique situation indeed.
Luxembourg is thus prepared to be widely open to foreign culture, especially because the small size of the country (999 square miles) and its population (399 239 inhabitants) hardly allow for a rich national cultural life of high standard.
An open-minded attitude to foreign culture permits Luxembourg to escape the narrowness of provincial thought and life. In fact, the intensity and diversity of cultural life in Luxembourg is surprising. The theatre season regularly brings to Luxembourg outstanding performances by the best companies of France, Germany and Belgium. The more popular cinemas play throughout the year the whole range of the international film productions in their original language. A favourable geographic location brings into the Luxembourg homes radio and television programs from France, Germany and Belgium in addition to the Luxembourg national ones. Satellite television with its worldwide network is very popular. The ASTRA ground control station is situated in the Grand Duchy.
The possibility to use several languages of high civilisation as cultural instruments is certainly an advantage, but there are also drawbacks. Lacking its own spiritual roots, the Luxembourg writer is almost doomed to a certain creative sterility because he can very seldom manage to really make his own a tongue that he learned at school and has only occasionally spoken. Critical consciousness of a foreign language is thus more common than partaking in its proper and peculiar imagination and sentiment.
It would seem that only the mother tongue, which one thinks and speaks, is really an instrument of original creation. And in fact, within the evident limitations imposed by the relative poverty of the local dialect, Luxembourg writers are creative, especially in lyrical poetry and local theatre which more often are spoken rather than written media. (See also: Edition Phi, the main publisher in Luxembourg for books on Lëtzebuergesch Literature and Theatre). Luxembourg writers in German are dealing with an instrument close to their mother tongue and familiar to all readers. Certainly "Luxembourg" high German seldom achieves the purity and exactness of genuine German, but the "Luxembourgisms" lend their works a local flavour which makes them somehow true and genuine. In that respect, the Luxembourger writing in French is less favoured. He faces the refinements and intricacies of a completely foreign language learned and cultivated in Germanic territory. He seldom reaches the higher realms of creativity, unless he expatriates himself into completely French surroundings. And the public moreover is likely to prefer the Paris literary production to his own. He is at his best as an often brilliant critic, essayist or scientific writer, where he can take full advantage of his unique participation in two cultural worlds of equally high standard.
As with all questions of languages, borders are not so easily drawn. Hence it should come as no surprise that the political boundaries of the Grand Duchy do not sharply delimit the situation depicted above. Indeed, in the surrounding areas of Luxembourg, many people have grown up with a variant of our Luxembourgish lingua: the "Platt" of Lorraine is similarly connected to middle-high German [Rhinefrankish, Moselfrankish and Lëtzebuergesch], yet the area (nowadays) is part of France; many inhabitants of the so-called "Areler Land" just inside Belgium also grew up speaking Lëzebuergesch, yet they are imbued with French all around them; ... Since a lot of these adjacent regions are similarly - though perhaps not to quite the same extent - shaped by both German and French culture, the whole area around Luxembourg can truly be called a Franco-German Cultural Melting Pot.
Publications on "Lëtzebuergesch"
Readers may be interested to hear that there are a number of books available on the language of Luxembourg. Here's a list of some of the more interesting publications available, by sections:
• About Lëtzebuergesch
• Dictionaries
• Learning Lëtzebuergesch
Some of the information below is taken from Jul Christophory's book: "A Short History of Literature in Luxembourgish" (1994 Bibliothèque Nationale - ISBN2-87980-011-0)
About Lëtzebuergesch
o Luxembourg & Lëtzebuergesch, Language and Communication at the Crossroads of Europe
by Dr Gerald Newton, Director of the Centre for Luxembourg Studies at the University of Sheffield
Oxford University Press (21st March 1996) ISBN 0-19-824016-3
The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg sits at the heart of the European Union, yet it forms a very private and close-knit community. This book addresses that apparent paradox, and shows how it is reflected in and sustained by the linguistic practices of the people who live there, both native and foreign. Lëtzebuergesch, the country's national language, is most closely related to the German dialects of the western Rhineland and the Moselle river valley, but the country's historical and cultural links with Belgium, the Netherlands, and France are much closer than with Germany. Since the demise of Latin in the late Middle Ages as the language of administration, that role has been filled at various times by the standard varieties of French and German. Since 1945, French and Lëtzebuergesch have come to predominate and the use of German has once again receded. It is the unwritten social code governing the use of these languages (and latterly also of English) which gives this volume of specially commissioned papers its focus: the purpose is to provide an insider's view of the community, and of its little-known language. The book contains the most detailed linguistic description of Lëtzebuergesch so far available in English."
o Who's afraid of Luxembourgish? Lëtzebuergesch? Qui a peur du Luxembourgeois? Bilingual guide to Luxembourgish conversation
Jul Christophory. Luxembourg. Imprimerie Bourg-Bourger, 1979, 120 p.
About a third of Luxembourg's population consists of foreigners. This Luxembourg phrase-book with English and French translation was compiled for all English- and French-speaking people living in Luxembourg. By presenting them with dialogues and vocabulary for about thirty everyday situations, it sets out to give an insight into Luxembourgish as spoken by the average inhabitant.
[Note: Don't be confused: The book is really trilingual, as one reader -while qualifying it as "a fine book for its genre"- quite correctly remarked.
The book is, however, subtitled: "bilingual guide". ]
o German dialects: Phonology and Morphology with selected texts
R.E.Keller. Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1961. 369 p. map. bibliog.
This book affords the student of German a descriptive phonological and grammatical survey of certain dialects. Keller devotes chapters to Schwyzerdütsch, Alsatian, Darmstadt dialect, Upper Austrian, Lëtzebuergesch, Westphalian and North Saxon (lower Elbe). The chapter on Lëtzebuergesch (p.248-99) is subdivided into phonology, morphology, an extract from Michel Rodange's De Renert, notes and glossary. It offers a very proficient and systematic survey of the area, status and general characteristics of Luxembourgish. The whole book constitutes a unique comparative study and stimulating starting-point for further research.
o Luxembourgeois, Qui êtes-vous? Echos et chuchotements by Jul Christophory
(Ed. Guy Binsfeld) An interesting essay to characterize the Lëtzebuerger
Dictionaries
o Luxemburger Wörterbuch (5 Volumes)
Ed. Paul Linden 1950/54; reprint 1978 Joseph Beffort
Members of the original Dictionary commission: J. Tockert, R. Bruch, R. Palgen, I Comes, J. Hess, E. Ludovicy, J. Meyers, J.P. Zanen.
Members of the 1976 Dictionary commission: H. Rinnen, A. Atten, H. Palgen, G. Reuland, T. Schroeder, P.Schumacher, E. Steinmetzer, M. Werdel, P. Jost, H. Klees, E. Leytem, F. Lorang, C. Meder, V. Rasqu, J.Scheer, O. Scholer.
This book has been defined by some as the "ultimate" Luxembourg dictionary. It lists Lëtzebuergesch words and defines them in standard German, along with examples of their use (eg idioms). It was published in instalments, between 1950 and 1978, the last volume (5) being a supplement of what they had forgotten to include. A new Commission for a new Dictionary was set up in 1994, but since the government didn't grant any money towards compiling the dictionary, and they couldn't find anybody willing to do the compiling anyway, the whole thing was abandoned, and a decision taken instead to reprint the 5 volumes unchanged, except for being compressed into 2 volumes. This came out in 1995/96, distributed by Librairie Krauss. It costs about 160 UK pound.
o English-Lëtzebuergesch Dictionary by Jules Christophory
(New edition, 1996) consisting of 35 000 words
ISBN 2-87 953-015-6
Editions Schortgen
Jean-Paul Schortgen
121 rue de l'Alzette
L-4011 Esch-sur-Alzette
Tel: (+352) 54 64 87
Fax: (+352) 53 05 34
o 6000 Wierder
(6000 essential Luxembourgish words are translated from Lëtzebuergesch into French, German, English, Spanish and Portuguese by Jacqui Zimmer)
Editions: Imprimerie St Paul ISBN 2 879 631 777
2 rue Christophe Plantin
Z.I. Luxembourg-Gasperich
L-2988 Luxembourg
Learning Lëtzebuergesch
o "Parler Luxembourgeois / Esou Schwaetze mir / Living Luxembourgish" by Gilbert Sondag, Josiane Kartheiser, Henry Wickens
Editions Le Phare, Esch-sur-Alzette, 1996, pp. 347.
o "L wei Lëtzebuergesch. Lëtzebuergesch fir all Dag"
Book and Cassette made by the "Centre de Langues Luxembourg".
Luxembourg Ministry of Education. Provisional Edition 1993."
o Mir schwätze Lëtzebuergesch. Nous parlons luxembourgeois. Abécédaire luxembourgeois. Guide bilingue de grammaire et de lecture.
(We speak Luxembourgish. Luxembourgish primer. Bilingual guide to grammar and reading.)
Jul Christophory. Luxembourg: Imprimerie Saint-Paul, 1974. 167p.
This textbook was written for the English- and French-speaking communities living in Luxembourg. It is a complement to the phrase-book: Who's afraid of Luxembourgish? Part I provides essential data on Luxembourgish; Part II is a closer study of the main grammatical features; Part III gives a survey of the literary scene and quotes extracts from the most popular authors (with English and French translations).
o Da lass - mir léiere Lëtzebuergesch
Video cassette (240 minutes) + Two books (Vol1: 160 pages / 600 colour illustrations; Vol2: 262 pages / 700 colour illustrations)
Learn the Luxembourg language in 20 interesting lessons, complete with grammatical, phonetic and lexicographic elements, as well as (solved) exercises.
This publication is available from the "Service central des Imprimés de l'Etat" : 22, rue des Bruyères / L-1274 Howald Tel:+352 49 88 11 1; Fax: +352 40 08 81, at a cost of 49.58 Euro for volumes I and II, and 40.01 Euro for volume III. Postage and Packing will be charged additionally (some 12 Euro for despatch to a GB address)
o A most interesting site on learning how to spell Lëtzebuergesch is at: www.al.lu/yuppi. (though you'll have to know the language already as the site works in Lëtzebuergesch).
o An interactive CD "Learn Luxembourgish" has been launched at the end of 2006 by EuroTalk Interactive in their "Talk Now" series covering more than 100 languages.
Subtitled "Essential words and Phrases for absolute beginners", this CD is a fun way of learning the rudiments of Lëtzebuergesch through simple words and common phrases. Interactive quizzes and games help the budding speaker check the acquired material and compare his/her pronounciation to the correct way through speech recordings. More advanced language CDs for Luxembourgish are in the planning, please check the EuroTalk web site.
The CD works on Windows™ 98/2000/ME/XP/Vista as well as Mac OS 9 or X.
It costs £24.99, and is available through the EuroTalk website and in high streets the world over.
See also www.language.lu
o (Free) videos on learning Lëtzebuergesch are on YouTube
o Let'z Learn Video lessons for learning Lëtzebuergesch
o NEW Learn Luxembourgish in London!
Get in on this course while the recruitment is still open. A unique chance to learn Lëtzebuergesch -taught by a Luxembourger- whilst living in London.
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Several organisations in Luxembourg can assist with learning Lëtzebuergesch, in day-time and/or evening Language Courses:
Ministère de l'Education Nationale
Lycée Technique du Centre
106 Avenue Pasteur
L-2309 Luxembourg
Tel: (+352) 2478 5153
Centre de Langues et de Culture
80, Boulevard General Patton
L-2316 Luxembourg
Tel: (+352) - 40 39 41
International Language Centre / Prolingua
140 Rue Adolphe Fischer
L-1521 Luxembourg
Tel: (+352) 40 39 91 / 40 39 92
Luxembourg - Accueil - Information
10 Bisserwé
L-1238 Luxembourg
Tel: (+352) 24 17 17 (9 - 12 a.m.)
Ecole privée GrandJean
7 Rue Adolphe Fischer
L-1521 Luxembourg
Tel: (+352) 49 17 92
CELAC - Centre Européen des Langues et de la Communication
2 Circuit de la Foire Internationale
L-1347 Luxembourg
Tel: (+352) 42 62 30 312
ASTI - a.s.b.l. - Association de Soutien aux Travailleurs Immigrés
10 Rue Auguste Laval
L-1922 Luxembourg
Tel: (+352) 43 83 33
Service International de Formation Langues - inlingua
72 Rue du Cimetière
L-1338 Luxembourg
Tel: (+352) 40 35 47
Fax: (+352) 40 35 48
Languages.lu
Clara Moraru
6, rue Marguerite de Brabant
L- 1254 Luxembourg-Merl
Tel: (+352) 26 47 85 03
Fax: (+352) 26 47 85 04
Language courses, translations, interpretations, and more.
Also offers online courses in Luxembourgish
YES academy
10, rue C.M. Spoo
L-2546 Luxemburg
Tel: (+352) 27 99 21 54
Fax: (+352) 27 99 2154
jp.piazzolla@yesacademy.lu
"YES academy" currently offers language courses in English, French, German, Italian, Luxemburgish, Portuguese, Russian and Spanish.
Info-Accueil
9 Rue Chimay
Tel: (+352) 47 96 27 51
Fax: (+352) 46 06 35
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge contributions from Dr Gerald Newton, Director of the Centre for Luxembourg Studies at the University of Sheffield, and participants of the "alt.letzebuerger" usenet newsgroup.
Further information about Lëtzebuergesch
• www.eis-sprooch.lu A stunning site about all things Lëtzebuergesch. Compliments to the makers!
• The Institut Grand-Ducal, Section de Linguistique, de Folklore et de Toponymie, who have contributed to the Luxemburger Wörterbuch, is now available via email. The Secretary is Henri Klees at henri.klees@ci.rech.lu and Ralph Fichtner, who is currently employed to put the archive on computer, is at ralph.fichtner@ci.educ.lu
• At www.igd-leo.lu/igd-leo/onomastics/villages/villages.html is a most useful gazetteer of villages and towns, explaining Luxembourg Place names.
Jean ENSCH (email: jean.ensch@ci.rech.lu), the creator of the above page(s), writes: "Due to its particular situation on the French-German language frontier, Luxembourg place names have the peculiarity of having sometimes 3 differents versions according to the French, German or Luxembourgish languages used. Therefore the alphabetical lists of place names are presented in three different language series, each giving the corresponding version in the two other languages. Moreover, the name of the municipality these villages administratively belong to is also supplied. A clickable map, indicating the municipal boundaries is also availabe at this site."
• An interesting discussion on the economic weight of the Luxembourg language (De l'importance économique du luxembourgeois) followed by an article on the French language use in Luxembourg "Parlez français, s.v.p.!" is at: www.igd-leo.lu/igd-leo/linguistics/baleine/igdbaleine.html
• "La situation linguistique sur le marché du travail" - The linguistic situation on the jobmarket in Luxembourg.
PDF document (in the French language) published by the "Comité de Liaison et d'Action des Etrangers".
• Literary Life in Luxembourg
• Centre National de Littérature
• Languages in Europe (BBC)
• ... eis Sprooch To help keep our language -the symbol of our national identity- alive, this site by the "Lycée Michel Rodange" gives some texts of Luxembourg poems, and also has a number of audio files available for download
• Centre de Langues Luxembourg (CLL) ALTE
• The Lëtzebuerger Online Dictionnaire is a multilingual dictionary of Luxemburgish words with translations into German, French, English and Portuguese. Word usage is illustrated by examples in Luxemburgish. Relevant grammatical information complements semantic and lexical information and possible synonyms. It is also possible to display a conjugation table for each verb and a declension table for each adjective. Entries can be accessed by entering the Luxemburgish the translated word. Thus, depending on the specific needs and language skills of the user, the dictionary can be used both as an aid to understanding a Luxemburgish term and as a translation tool. The spelling of Luxemburgish words respects the rules set out in the Grand Ducal Regulation of 1999 (Règlement grand-ducal). At present words beginning with A-G may be accessed via the search engine.
• About languages in Luxembourg - An indepth article beautifully presented (pdf) and well worth reading indeed.
http://www.luxembourg.co.uk/lingua.html
BILINGUAL SENTENCE PROCESSING, 134
To order this title, and for more information, click here
Edited By
Roberto Heredia, Texas A&M International University
J. Altarriba, Department of Psychology, State University of New York, Albany, NY, USA
Included in series
Advances in Psychology, 134
Description
Bilingual Sentence Processing provides an overview of the literature on bilingual sentence processing from a psycholinguistic and linguistic perspective. The editors have chosen noted researchers in the field of bilingual language processing. Research focuses on both the visual and spoken modalities including specific areas of research interest including an integrated review of methods and the utility of those methods which allows readers to have the appropriate background and context for the chapters that follow. Next, issues surrounding acquisition and pragmatic usage are covered with a focus on code-switching and the actual parsing of sentence material both within and between languages. Third, issues regarding memory, placing language in a broader context, are explored as the connection between language, memory, and perception is reviewed for bilingual speakers. Finally, all of this work has direct implications for educational settings–specifically issues surrounding the assessment of proficiency, the development and nature of dominance, and the acquisition of reading skills and reading comprehension for bilingual speakers.
Audience
For both the novice and the experienced researcher in the fields of cognitive science, artificial intelligence, communication and information processing, psycholinguistics and linguists.
Contents
Acknowledgements. Preface (G.B. Simpson). Introduction and overview (J. Altarriba, R.R. Heredia).
Methods in Bilingual Research.
On-line methods in bilingual spoken language research (R.R. Heredia, M.T. Stewart).
Connectionist Models of Second Language Processing and Bilingualism.
Extending the competition model (B. MacWhinney). A self-organizing connectionist model of bilingual processing (Ping Li, I. Farkas).
Memory Representation in Sentence Processing.
Cross-language facilitation, semantic blindness, and the relation between language and memory: replications of Altarriba and Soltano (1996) and support for a new theory (D.G. MacKay et al.). The use of sentence contexts in reading, memory, and semantic disambiguation (J. Altarriba, J.L. Gianico). Exploring language asymmetries in early Spanish-English bilinguals: the role of lexical and sentential context effects (A.E. Hernández). Text comprehension in bilinguals: integrating perspectives on language representation and text processing (G.E. Raney et al.).
Psycholinguistic Theory and Research.
Relative clause attachment in bilinguals and monolinguals (E.M. Fernández). An on-line look at sentence processing in the second language (C. Frenck-Mestre). Cross-linguistic aspects of anaphor resolution (D. Hillert).
Figurative Language Processing.
Understanding phrasal verbs in monolinguals and bilinguals (T. Matlock, R.R. Heredia). What native and non-native speakers' images for idioms tell us about figurative language (H. Bortfeld).
Language Skill Development in Bilingual Children.
The role of formal definitions in reading comprehension of bilingual students (A.Y. Durgunoğlu et al.). Syntactic structure, grammatical accuracy, and content in second-language writing: an analysis of skill learning and on-line processing (W.S. Francis et al.). Code switching in preschool bilingual children (Z. Peynircioğlu, A.Y. Durgunğlu). Authors' information. Author index. Subject index.
Bibliographic details
Hardbound, 390 pages, publication date: JUL-2002
ISBN-13: 978-0-444-50847-8
ISBN-10: 0-444-50847-3
Imprint: NORTH-HOLLAND
http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/bookdescription.cws_home/622603/description#description
One Person, One Language
The OPOL Method for Raising a Bilingual Child
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Feb 21, 2009 Margaret M. Williams
A popular method for teaching young children to speak multiple languages, the One Person, One Language system has both advantages and challenges for the bilingual family.
Jeff grew up speaking both Spanish and English. Caroline, speaks only English. They want their new baby to grow up bilingual, and they have chosen the “One Person, One Language” (OPOL) method of language learning to teach their son.
The OPOL method is one of the most widely used bilingual language learning systems in the world, according to Dr. Barbara Zurer Pearson in her book Raising a Bilingual Child [Living Language/Random House, 2008]. With OPOL, each parent speaks only the language that is native to that parent when communicating with the child. Children quickly learn to associate a particular language with the appropriate parent.
The Advantages of Bilingual Parenting Using the OPOL Language Learning System
The primary advantage to the OPOL method is that children grow up able to communicate with the extended family of the parent who speaks the minority (non-community-based) language as easily as with the family and community of the majority language speaker .
OPOL is a flexible strategy for raising multilingual children. For example, if both parents are equally bilingual themselves, either parent can be assigned as the consistent speaker of the minority language. In a situation in which each parent speaks a different minority language, they can each speak that language with their child and let the community be the teacher of the majority language. In this way their children will grow up trilingual.
If the family is mobile, such that the majority language of the community is likely to change from time to time, the core languages spoken in the home can remain constant.
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The Disadvantages of the OPOL Method of Language Learning for Bilingual Families
As in any bilingual learning situation, the kids may, on occasion, mix the languages, even inventing words based on early confusions. However, according to Dr. Pearson, over time the languages will sort themselves out.
Drs. Kendall King and Alison Mackey, in their book The Bilingual Edge [HarperCollins Publishers, 2007], caution that if the minority language speaking parent is also one who, for various reasons, spends less time with the children, the majority, or community, language could become overly dominant. Unless the parent of the minority language has an absolute expectation that their children will be truly bilingual, they might very well become “passive” bilinguals rather than “active” ones, listening to the minority language parent in one language but answering in the other.
On the other hand, if the parent who speaks the minority language is the primary caretaker of the child, it may be difficult to maintain the minority language when out of the home and in the community. For some it may feel awkward to speak to the child in the target language when others are speaking to him or her in the language of the community. It will take resolve and determination to continue to communicate in the desired second language in a variety of contexts.
With only one source of language model, it is possible that the minority language will not develop as strongly or as accurately as the majority language. However, this can be corrected with additional educational experiences. In the same vein, if there is no formal schooling available in the minority language, the child might learn to speak well enough, but might not have adequate exposure to reading and writing that language – another correctable situation.
Tips for Facilitating the OPOL Language Instruction Approach to Raising Bilingual Children
Avoid the temptation to explicitly correct mistakes in grammar, particularly in the minority language. Dr. Zurer’s experience with early language development indicates that such interruptions in the flow of conversation can be more frustrating than helpful to the young language learner.
Consider finding multiple sources of exposure to the minority language. Being able to speak with a variety of people in a variety of settings will give the child opportunities to expand vocabulary and improve language skills.
Have patience and be determined. Families who are resolved and committed to teaching their children using the OPOL method report very good results.
There are many methods for raising a child to be bilingual. The One Person, One Language method is the most popular world-wide. Children learn to associate a specific language with a specific parent, and very little confusion is reported. However, parents will face challenges with this method depending on the amount of time each parent spends with the child and how strong the pull of the community language is. However, with a belief in the importance of raising a child to speak two languages, a strong determination to succeed, and an absolute expectation that the child can and will speak both languages, the OPOL strategy has proven to be very successful.
Read more at Suite101: One Person, One Language: The OPOL Method for Raising a Bilingual Child http://languagestudy.suite101.com/article.cfm/one_person_one_language#ixzz0p6LR0G3D
http://languagestudy.suite101.com/article.cfm/one_person_one_language
THE SECOND LANGUAGE
THE SECOND LANGUAGE
INTERACTIONIST VIEW
Second language acquisition is the process by which people learn a second language in addition to their native language. The language to be learned is often referred to as the “TARGET LANGUAGE” or “L2”, compared to the first language, referred to as the “SOURCE LANGUAGE”.
Interaction is the key to second language learning. Ellis (1985) defines interaction as the discourse jointly constructed by the learner. The interactionist view of language learning is the result of an interaction between the learner’s mental abilities and the linguistic environment. Long (1990) as cited in Ellis proposed that interaction is necessary for the second language acquisition. According to him, three aspects of verbal interaction can be distinguished: input, output, and feedback. Input is The language offered to the learner by native speakers or other learners. Production is the language spoken by the language learners themselves. Feedback is the response given by the conversational partners to the production of the learner. According to Krashen, language acquisition takes place during human interaction in the target language environment. Gass and Varonis (1994),The native speaker modifications are more frequent in two way communication because conversation provides the native speaker with feedback from the learner & thus enables him to estimate the amount of adjustment required. Hatch (1983), Suggests that foreigner talk has the same basic functions as motherese whereby it promotes communication, establishes an effective bond between native speaker, learner and serves as an implicit mode teaching.
Second language acquisition based on interactionist view have some effects in negotiation of meaning:
► It helps to promote communication
► It facilitates learning as it helps noticing a “gap” between received input and the learner’s output
► It enables learners to receive feedback through direct and indirect evidence Recall of the relevant item will be enhanced
►It helps acquisition at least where vocabulary is concerned
► Clarification requests facilitate learners to produce output modifications
► Pushing learners to produce more comprehensible output may have a long-term effect
However, so far relationship between the amount or type of negotiated input and the amount or type of learning which occurs still remains unresolved at this point and further empirical research is needed.
The conclusion:
Interaction is a recursive process. The learner receives input from his/her interlocutor and that input becomes intake when the learner processes the information internally. The learner than produces the output which in turn becomes the input for the interlocutor and he/she provides feedback to that input. This process continues as conversation or communication and therefore enhances second language learning.
INTERACTIONIST VIEW
Second language acquisition is the process by which people learn a second language in addition to their native language. The language to be learned is often referred to as the “TARGET LANGUAGE” or “L2”, compared to the first language, referred to as the “SOURCE LANGUAGE”.
Interaction is the key to second language learning. Ellis (1985) defines interaction as the discourse jointly constructed by the learner. The interactionist view of language learning is the result of an interaction between the learner’s mental abilities and the linguistic environment. Long (1990) as cited in Ellis proposed that interaction is necessary for the second language acquisition. According to him, three aspects of verbal interaction can be distinguished: input, output, and feedback. Input is The language offered to the learner by native speakers or other learners. Production is the language spoken by the language learners themselves. Feedback is the response given by the conversational partners to the production of the learner. According to Krashen, language acquisition takes place during human interaction in the target language environment. Gass and Varonis (1994),The native speaker modifications are more frequent in two way communication because conversation provides the native speaker with feedback from the learner & thus enables him to estimate the amount of adjustment required. Hatch (1983), Suggests that foreigner talk has the same basic functions as motherese whereby it promotes communication, establishes an effective bond between native speaker, learner and serves as an implicit mode teaching.
Second language acquisition based on interactionist view have some effects in negotiation of meaning:
► It helps to promote communication
► It facilitates learning as it helps noticing a “gap” between received input and the learner’s output
► It enables learners to receive feedback through direct and indirect evidence Recall of the relevant item will be enhanced
►It helps acquisition at least where vocabulary is concerned
► Clarification requests facilitate learners to produce output modifications
► Pushing learners to produce more comprehensible output may have a long-term effect
However, so far relationship between the amount or type of negotiated input and the amount or type of learning which occurs still remains unresolved at this point and further empirical research is needed.
The conclusion:
Interaction is a recursive process. The learner receives input from his/her interlocutor and that input becomes intake when the learner processes the information internally. The learner than produces the output which in turn becomes the input for the interlocutor and he/she provides feedback to that input. This process continues as conversation or communication and therefore enhances second language learning.
Teori Psikososial
Teori Psikososial
The epigenetik psikoseksual Tahapan
Erikson percaya bahwa masa kanak-kanak sangat penting dalam pengembangan kepribadian. Dia menerima banyak teori-teori Freud, termasuk id, ego, dan superego, dan teori Freud tentang seksualitas infantil. Namun Erikson menolak upaya Freud untuk menggambarkan kepribadian semata-mata atas dasar seksualitas, dan, tidak seperti Freud, merasa kepribadian yang terus berkembang melampaui usia lima tahun.
Semua tahapan dalam teori Erikson epigenetik secara implisit hadir pada saat kelahiran (setidaknya dalam bentuk laten), tetapi terungkap baik menurut skema yang bawaan dan seseorang up-membawa dalam keluarga yang mengungkapkan nilai-nilai budaya. Setiap tahap dibangun di atas tahap sebelumnya, dan membuka jalan bagi tahap berikutnya. Setiap tahap ditandai dengan krisis psikososial, yang didasarkan pada perkembangan fisiologis, tetapi juga pada tuntutan memakai individu oleh orang tua dan / atau masyarakat. Idealnya, krisis dalam setiap tahap harus diselesaikan oleh ego dalam tahap itu, agar pembangunan untuk melanjutkan dengan benar. Hasil dari satu panggung tidak permanen, tetapi dapat diubah oleh pengalaman kemudian. Setiap orang memiliki campuran sifat dicapai pada setiap tahap, tetapi pengembangan kepribadian dianggap berhasil jika individu memiliki lebih dari "baik" ciri-ciri daripada "buruk" sifat.
Ego Psikologi
teori Erikson psikologi ego memegang prinsip-prinsip tertentu yang membedakan teori dari Freud. Beberapa di antaranya:
• Ego adalah sangat penting.
• Bagian dari ego mampu beroperasi secara independen dari id dan superego.
• Ego adalah agen yang kuat yang dapat beradaptasi dengan situasi, sehingga meningkatkan
• kesehatan mental.
• Sosial dan faktor seksual baik memainkan peran dalam pengembangan kepribadian.
teori Erikson lebih komprehensif daripada Freud, dan termasuk informasi tentang kepribadian "normal" serta neurosis. Ia juga memperluas ruang lingkup kepribadian untuk menggabungkan masyarakat dan budaya, bukan hanya seksualitas. Kritik terhadap teori-teorinya, selain faktor dibahas di kelas, telah mencatat bahwa ia tidak melakukan penelitian statistik untuk menghasilkan teori-teorinya, dan sangat sulit untuk menguji teori-teorinya dalam rangka untuk melakukan validasi.
Zona, Mode, dan Modalitas
"A" "b" dan "c" mengidentifikasi zona oral, anal, dan gential, masing-masing; dan angka "1" melalui "berkaitan 5" ke incorporative pasif dan aktif, kuat dan eliminatif, dan mengganggu mode, masing-masing .
Erikson ilustrasi tentang "saling mempengaruhi satu zona dengan semua mode" (1950, hal 73ff.) melalui lingkaran dan panah adalah salah satu momen paling membingungkan dalam bukunya. Berikut adalah diagram (Erikson, 1950, hal 89), pada pengembangan titik pria dan wanita dikatakan menyimpang dalam lokomotor / mengganggu / "phallic" / oedipal Tahap 3:
Setiap sel dari diagram merupakan anak di beberapa saat interaksi zona-mode.
Perhatikan bahwa, gelap-berbatasan tangga-kasus seperti, tren developmet untuk anak laki-laki (Gambar 4) dihidupkan kembali dalam kasus gadis (Gambar 5), tetapi bahwa masing-masing memiliki mode dominan lain dalam laten (titik-titik- perbatasan) bentuk. Anak itu tampaknya menyerah banyak incorporativeness, dan gadis banyak campur tangan dia, di tingkat keempat (yaitu, di awal "Inisiatif / Bersalah" panggung).
Berikut adalah konsep dalam bentuk bagan
(Anda harus dapat mereproduksi dan menjelaskan setiap kolom)
Tahap Kepribadian
Psikoseksual Mode
Modalitas psikososial
"Kebajikan"
Kepercayaan vs Ketidakpercayaan incorporative 1
incorporative 2
mendapatkan
mengambil
Harapan
Otonomi vs Shame, Doubt kuat
eliminatif
berpegang pada
melepaskan
Tekad
Inititative vs Rasa Bersalah membosankan
membuat
Tujuan
Industri vs Rendah diri
Kompetensi
Identitas vs Kebingungan Peran Kesetiaan
Keintiman vs Isolasi
Cinta
Generativity vs Stagnasi
Perawatan
Integritas vs.Despair
Kebijaksanaan
Berikut ini adalah bagan diperluas (ekstrapolasi dari Erikson) yang dapat membantu saat Anda menggunakan Erikson untuk esai akhir.
Tahap 1 - Basic Trust vs Ketidakpercayaan
• Membangun kepercayaan adalah tugas pertama dari ego, dan tidak pernah selesai.
• Anak akan membiarkan ibu keluar dari pandangan tanpa kecemasan dan kemarahan karena ia telah menjadi kepastian batin serta prediktabilitas luar.
• Saldo kepercayaan dengan ketidakpercayaan tergantung pada kualitas hubungan ibu.
Tahap 2 - Otonomi vs Malu dan Keraguan
• Jika otonomi ditolak, anak akan berbalik melawan dirinya mendesak untuk memanipulasi dan diskriminasi.
• Malu berkembang dengan kesadaran diri anak-.
• Keraguan ada hubungannya dengan memiliki bagian depan dan belakang - sebuah "balik" tunduk pada aturan sendiri. Waktu lebih dari keraguan dapat menjadi paranoia.
• Rasa otonomi dibina pada anak dan dimodifikasi sebagai kehidupan berlangsung melayani pelestarian dalam kehidupan ekonomi dan politik dari rasa keadilan.
Tahap 3 - Inisiatif vs Rasa Bersalah
• Inisiatif menambah otonomi kualitas usaha, perencanaan, dan menyerang tugas demi menjadi aktif dan bergerak.
• Anak itu merasa bersalah atas tujuan merenungkan dan tindakan dimulai pada kenikmatan berlimpah dari locomoter baru dan kekuatan mental.
• Kompleks pengebirian terjadi dalam tahap ini adalah karena fantasi erotis anak.
• Sebuah konflik sisa atas inisiatif dapat dinyatakan sebagai penolakan histeris, yang dapat menyebabkan represi keinginan atau pencabutan ego anak: kelumpuhan dan hambatan, atau overcompensation dan memamerkan.
• Hasil tahap oedipal tidak hanya dalam pembentukan menindas rasa moral yang membatasi cakrawala yang diperbolehkan, namun juga menetapkan arah ke arah yang mungkin dan nyata yang memungkinkan mimpi anak usia dini harus terpasang ke tujuan kehidupan dewasa yang aktif.
Setelah Tahap 3, seseorang dapat menggunakan seluruh repetoire modalitas sebelumnya, mode, dan zona untuk rajin, identitas-mempertahankan tujuan, intim, warisan-memproduksi, dispair-melawan.
Tahap 4 - Industri vs Rendah diri
• Untuk membawa situasi yang produktif untuk penyelesaian suatu tujuan yang secara bertahap menggantikan pada keinginan dan keinginan bermain.
• Dasar-dasar teknologi dikembangkan
• Untuk kehilangan harapan seperti asosiasi "rajin" dapat menarik anak kembali ke persaingan, lebih terisolasi keluarga kurang sadar waktu oedipal
• Anak bisa menjadi budak konformis dan dipikirkan siapa yang mengeksploitasi orang lain.
Tahap 5 - Identitas vs Kebingungan Peran (atau "Difusi")
• Remaja yang baru peduli dengan bagaimana mereka muncul kepada orang lain.
• identitas Ego adalah keyakinan diakui bahwa persamaan dalam dan kontinuitas disiapkan di masa lalu tersebut cocok dengan persamaan dan kontinuitas satu makna bagi orang lain, sebagaimana dibuktikan dalam janji karier.
• Ketidakmampuan untuk menetap di sekolah atau identitas pekerjaan yang mengganggu.
Tahap 6 - Keintiman vs Isolasi
• Tubuh dan ego harus master mode organ dan konflik nuklir lainnya dalam rangka menghadapi rasa takut kehilangan ego dalam situasi yang memanggil diri-meninggalkan.
• Menghindari pengalaman ini mengarah ke isolasi dan penyerapan diri.
• Mitra keintiman adalah distantiation, yang merupakan kesiapan untuk mengisolasi dan menghancurkan kekuatan dan orang-orang yang esensi tampaknya berbahaya untuk seseorang sendiri.
• Sekarang kemaluan benar sepenuhnya dapat berkembang.
• Bahaya pada tahap ini adalah isolasi yang dapat menyebabkan memutuskan masalah karakter.
Erikson terdaftar kriteria untuk "utopia kelamin" menggambarkan desakan pada peran banyak mode dan modalitas dalam harmoni:
• mutualitas orgasme
• dengan mitra dicintai
• lawan jenis
• dengan siapa orang mau dan mampu berbagi kepercayaan, dan
• dengan siapa orang mau dan mampu mengatur siklus kerja, prokreasi, dan rekreasi
• sehingga aman untuk keturunannya semua tahapan pembangunan memuaskan
Tahap 7 - generativity vs Stagnasi
• Generativity menjadi perhatian dalam membangun dan membimbing generasi berikutnya.
• Cukup memiliki atau menginginkan anak-anak tidak mencapai generativity.
• Sosial-dihargai kerja dan murid juga ekspresi generativity.
Tahap 8 - Ego Integrity vs Despair
• Ego adalah jaminan integritas ego akumulasi kapasitas untuk order dan makna.
• Keputusasaan ini ditandai dengan takut mati sendiri, serta hilangnya swasembada, dan mitra dicintai dan teman-teman.
• anak-anak Sehat, Erikson memberitahu kita, tidak akan takut hidup jika orang tua mereka memiliki integritas yang cukup untuk tidak takut mati.
Teori Belajar Sosial
"Belajar akan sangat melelahkan, belum lagi berbahaya, jika orang harus bergantung hanya pada efek dari tindakan mereka sendiri untuk memberitahu mereka apa yang harus dilakukan:. Untungnya kebanyakan manusia, perilaku dipelajari observasional melalui pemodelan dari mengamati orang lain satu bentuk ide tentang bagaimana perilaku baru dilakukan, dan pada kesempatan kemudian dikodekan informasi ini berfungsi sebagai panduan untuk bertindak. " -Albert Bandura, Teori Belajar Sosial, 1977
Apakah Teori Belajar Sosial?
Teori pembelajaran sosial yang diusulkan oleh Albert Bandura telah menjadi mungkin yang paling berpengaruh teori pembelajaran dan pengembangan. Sementara banyak berakar pada konsep-konsep dasar teori pembelajaran tradisional, Bandura percaya bahwa penguatan langsung tidak dapat menjelaskan untuk semua jenis pembelajaran.
Teorinya menambahkan elemen sosial, dengan alasan bahwa orang dapat belajar informasi baru dan perilaku dengan melihat orang lain. Dikenal sebagai belajar observasional (atau model), jenis ini learning dapat digunakan untuk menjelaskan berbagai perilaku.
Konsep Dasar Belajar Sosial
1. Orang dapat belajar melalui observasi.
Belajar observasional
Dalam terkenal "Bobo boneka" studi, Bandura menunjukkan bahwa anak-anak belajar dan meniru perilaku mereka telah diamati pada orang lain. Anak-anak dalam studi Bandura mengamati orang dewasa melakukan tindakan kekerasan terhadap boneka Bobo. Ketika anak-anak itu kemudian diizinkan bermain dalam sebuah ruangan dengan boneka Bobo, mereka mulai meniru tindakan agresif mereka sebelumnya diamati.
Bandura mengidentifikasi tiga model dasar pembelajaran observasional:
1. Model hidup, yang melibatkan seorang individu yang sebenarnya mendemonstrasikan atau bertindak keluar perilaku.
2. Sebuah model pembelajaran verbal, yang melibatkan deskripsi dan penjelasan perilaku.
3. Model simbolik, yang melibatkan karakter nyata atau fiksi menampilkan perilaku dalam buku-buku, film, program televisi, atau media online.
2. Mental negara adalah penting untuk belajar.
Penguatan intrinsik
Bandura mencatat bahwa eksternal, penguatan lingkungan bukan satu-satunya faktor untuk mempengaruhi belajar dan perilaku. Dia menggambarkan penguatan intrinsik sebagai bentuk penghargaan internal, seperti kebanggaan, kepuasan, dan rasa prestasi. Penekanan pada pikiran internal dan kognisi membantu teori belajar terhubung ke teori perkembangan kognitif. Meskipun banyak buku teks tempat teori belajar sosial dengan teori perilaku, Bandura sendiri menggambarkan pendekatan sebagai 'teori sosial kognitif. "
3. Belajar tidak selalu menyebabkan perubahan perilaku.
Sementara behavioris percaya bahwa belajar menyebabkan perubahan permanen dalam perilaku, belajar observasional menunjukkan bahwa orang dapat mempelajari informasi baru tanpa menunjukkan perilaku baru.
Proses Modeling
Tidak semua perilaku yang diamati secara efektif dipelajari. Faktor-faktor yang melibatkan model dan pelajar dapat memainkan peran dalam apakah pembelajaran sosial berhasil. persyaratan tertentu dan langkah-langkah juga harus diikuti. Langkah-langkah berikut yang terlibat dalam pembelajaran observasional dan proses pemodelan:
• Perhatian:
Dalam rangka untuk belajar, Anda harus memperhatikan. Apa pun yang akan mengurangi perhatian Anda akan memiliki efek negatif terhadap belajar. Jika model yang menarik atau ada aspek novel dengan situasi, Anda jauh lebih mungkin untuk mempersembahkan perhatian penuh untuk belajar.
• Retensi:
Kemampuan untuk menyimpan informasi juga merupakan bagian penting dari proses belajar. Retensi dapat dipengaruhi oleh sejumlah faktor, namun kemampuan untuk menarik informasi nanti dan bertindak sangat penting untuk belajar.
• Reproduksi:
Setelah Anda memperhatikan model dan mempertahankan informasi, sekarang saatnya untuk benar-benar melakukan perilaku yang Anda diamati. praktek lebih lanjut dari perilaku yang dipelajari mengarah pada kemajuan perbaikan dan keterampilan.
• Motivasi:
Akhirnya, agar observasional belajar menjadi sukses, Anda harus termotivasi untuk meniru perilaku yang telah dimodelkan. Penguatan dan hukuman memainkan peran penting dalam motivasi. Sementara mengalami motivator ini dapat sangat efektif, sehingga dapat mengamati pengalaman lain beberapa jenis penguat atau hukuman. Misalnya, jika Anda melihat siswa lain dihargai dengan kredit tambahan karena ke kelas tepat waktu, Anda mungkin mulai muncul beberapa menit lebih awal setiap hari.
Daftar Pustaka
http://translate.google.co.id/translate?hl=id&langpair=en%7Cid&u=http://psychology.about.com/od/developmentalpsychology/a/sociallearning.htm
http://translate.google.co.id/translate?hl=id&langpair=en%7Cid&u=http://www.haverford.edu/psych/ddavis/p109g/erikson.stages.html
The epigenetik psikoseksual Tahapan
Erikson percaya bahwa masa kanak-kanak sangat penting dalam pengembangan kepribadian. Dia menerima banyak teori-teori Freud, termasuk id, ego, dan superego, dan teori Freud tentang seksualitas infantil. Namun Erikson menolak upaya Freud untuk menggambarkan kepribadian semata-mata atas dasar seksualitas, dan, tidak seperti Freud, merasa kepribadian yang terus berkembang melampaui usia lima tahun.
Semua tahapan dalam teori Erikson epigenetik secara implisit hadir pada saat kelahiran (setidaknya dalam bentuk laten), tetapi terungkap baik menurut skema yang bawaan dan seseorang up-membawa dalam keluarga yang mengungkapkan nilai-nilai budaya. Setiap tahap dibangun di atas tahap sebelumnya, dan membuka jalan bagi tahap berikutnya. Setiap tahap ditandai dengan krisis psikososial, yang didasarkan pada perkembangan fisiologis, tetapi juga pada tuntutan memakai individu oleh orang tua dan / atau masyarakat. Idealnya, krisis dalam setiap tahap harus diselesaikan oleh ego dalam tahap itu, agar pembangunan untuk melanjutkan dengan benar. Hasil dari satu panggung tidak permanen, tetapi dapat diubah oleh pengalaman kemudian. Setiap orang memiliki campuran sifat dicapai pada setiap tahap, tetapi pengembangan kepribadian dianggap berhasil jika individu memiliki lebih dari "baik" ciri-ciri daripada "buruk" sifat.
Ego Psikologi
teori Erikson psikologi ego memegang prinsip-prinsip tertentu yang membedakan teori dari Freud. Beberapa di antaranya:
• Ego adalah sangat penting.
• Bagian dari ego mampu beroperasi secara independen dari id dan superego.
• Ego adalah agen yang kuat yang dapat beradaptasi dengan situasi, sehingga meningkatkan
• kesehatan mental.
• Sosial dan faktor seksual baik memainkan peran dalam pengembangan kepribadian.
teori Erikson lebih komprehensif daripada Freud, dan termasuk informasi tentang kepribadian "normal" serta neurosis. Ia juga memperluas ruang lingkup kepribadian untuk menggabungkan masyarakat dan budaya, bukan hanya seksualitas. Kritik terhadap teori-teorinya, selain faktor dibahas di kelas, telah mencatat bahwa ia tidak melakukan penelitian statistik untuk menghasilkan teori-teorinya, dan sangat sulit untuk menguji teori-teorinya dalam rangka untuk melakukan validasi.
Zona, Mode, dan Modalitas
"A" "b" dan "c" mengidentifikasi zona oral, anal, dan gential, masing-masing; dan angka "1" melalui "berkaitan 5" ke incorporative pasif dan aktif, kuat dan eliminatif, dan mengganggu mode, masing-masing .
Erikson ilustrasi tentang "saling mempengaruhi satu zona dengan semua mode" (1950, hal 73ff.) melalui lingkaran dan panah adalah salah satu momen paling membingungkan dalam bukunya. Berikut adalah diagram (Erikson, 1950, hal 89), pada pengembangan titik pria dan wanita dikatakan menyimpang dalam lokomotor / mengganggu / "phallic" / oedipal Tahap 3:
Setiap sel dari diagram merupakan anak di beberapa saat interaksi zona-mode.
Perhatikan bahwa, gelap-berbatasan tangga-kasus seperti, tren developmet untuk anak laki-laki (Gambar 4) dihidupkan kembali dalam kasus gadis (Gambar 5), tetapi bahwa masing-masing memiliki mode dominan lain dalam laten (titik-titik- perbatasan) bentuk. Anak itu tampaknya menyerah banyak incorporativeness, dan gadis banyak campur tangan dia, di tingkat keempat (yaitu, di awal "Inisiatif / Bersalah" panggung).
Berikut adalah konsep dalam bentuk bagan
(Anda harus dapat mereproduksi dan menjelaskan setiap kolom)
Tahap Kepribadian
Psikoseksual Mode
Modalitas psikososial
"Kebajikan"
Kepercayaan vs Ketidakpercayaan incorporative 1
incorporative 2
mendapatkan
mengambil
Harapan
Otonomi vs Shame, Doubt kuat
eliminatif
berpegang pada
melepaskan
Tekad
Inititative vs Rasa Bersalah membosankan
membuat
Tujuan
Industri vs Rendah diri
Kompetensi
Identitas vs Kebingungan Peran Kesetiaan
Keintiman vs Isolasi
Cinta
Generativity vs Stagnasi
Perawatan
Integritas vs.Despair
Kebijaksanaan
Berikut ini adalah bagan diperluas (ekstrapolasi dari Erikson) yang dapat membantu saat Anda menggunakan Erikson untuk esai akhir.
Tahap 1 - Basic Trust vs Ketidakpercayaan
• Membangun kepercayaan adalah tugas pertama dari ego, dan tidak pernah selesai.
• Anak akan membiarkan ibu keluar dari pandangan tanpa kecemasan dan kemarahan karena ia telah menjadi kepastian batin serta prediktabilitas luar.
• Saldo kepercayaan dengan ketidakpercayaan tergantung pada kualitas hubungan ibu.
Tahap 2 - Otonomi vs Malu dan Keraguan
• Jika otonomi ditolak, anak akan berbalik melawan dirinya mendesak untuk memanipulasi dan diskriminasi.
• Malu berkembang dengan kesadaran diri anak-.
• Keraguan ada hubungannya dengan memiliki bagian depan dan belakang - sebuah "balik" tunduk pada aturan sendiri. Waktu lebih dari keraguan dapat menjadi paranoia.
• Rasa otonomi dibina pada anak dan dimodifikasi sebagai kehidupan berlangsung melayani pelestarian dalam kehidupan ekonomi dan politik dari rasa keadilan.
Tahap 3 - Inisiatif vs Rasa Bersalah
• Inisiatif menambah otonomi kualitas usaha, perencanaan, dan menyerang tugas demi menjadi aktif dan bergerak.
• Anak itu merasa bersalah atas tujuan merenungkan dan tindakan dimulai pada kenikmatan berlimpah dari locomoter baru dan kekuatan mental.
• Kompleks pengebirian terjadi dalam tahap ini adalah karena fantasi erotis anak.
• Sebuah konflik sisa atas inisiatif dapat dinyatakan sebagai penolakan histeris, yang dapat menyebabkan represi keinginan atau pencabutan ego anak: kelumpuhan dan hambatan, atau overcompensation dan memamerkan.
• Hasil tahap oedipal tidak hanya dalam pembentukan menindas rasa moral yang membatasi cakrawala yang diperbolehkan, namun juga menetapkan arah ke arah yang mungkin dan nyata yang memungkinkan mimpi anak usia dini harus terpasang ke tujuan kehidupan dewasa yang aktif.
Setelah Tahap 3, seseorang dapat menggunakan seluruh repetoire modalitas sebelumnya, mode, dan zona untuk rajin, identitas-mempertahankan tujuan, intim, warisan-memproduksi, dispair-melawan.
Tahap 4 - Industri vs Rendah diri
• Untuk membawa situasi yang produktif untuk penyelesaian suatu tujuan yang secara bertahap menggantikan pada keinginan dan keinginan bermain.
• Dasar-dasar teknologi dikembangkan
• Untuk kehilangan harapan seperti asosiasi "rajin" dapat menarik anak kembali ke persaingan, lebih terisolasi keluarga kurang sadar waktu oedipal
• Anak bisa menjadi budak konformis dan dipikirkan siapa yang mengeksploitasi orang lain.
Tahap 5 - Identitas vs Kebingungan Peran (atau "Difusi")
• Remaja yang baru peduli dengan bagaimana mereka muncul kepada orang lain.
• identitas Ego adalah keyakinan diakui bahwa persamaan dalam dan kontinuitas disiapkan di masa lalu tersebut cocok dengan persamaan dan kontinuitas satu makna bagi orang lain, sebagaimana dibuktikan dalam janji karier.
• Ketidakmampuan untuk menetap di sekolah atau identitas pekerjaan yang mengganggu.
Tahap 6 - Keintiman vs Isolasi
• Tubuh dan ego harus master mode organ dan konflik nuklir lainnya dalam rangka menghadapi rasa takut kehilangan ego dalam situasi yang memanggil diri-meninggalkan.
• Menghindari pengalaman ini mengarah ke isolasi dan penyerapan diri.
• Mitra keintiman adalah distantiation, yang merupakan kesiapan untuk mengisolasi dan menghancurkan kekuatan dan orang-orang yang esensi tampaknya berbahaya untuk seseorang sendiri.
• Sekarang kemaluan benar sepenuhnya dapat berkembang.
• Bahaya pada tahap ini adalah isolasi yang dapat menyebabkan memutuskan masalah karakter.
Erikson terdaftar kriteria untuk "utopia kelamin" menggambarkan desakan pada peran banyak mode dan modalitas dalam harmoni:
• mutualitas orgasme
• dengan mitra dicintai
• lawan jenis
• dengan siapa orang mau dan mampu berbagi kepercayaan, dan
• dengan siapa orang mau dan mampu mengatur siklus kerja, prokreasi, dan rekreasi
• sehingga aman untuk keturunannya semua tahapan pembangunan memuaskan
Tahap 7 - generativity vs Stagnasi
• Generativity menjadi perhatian dalam membangun dan membimbing generasi berikutnya.
• Cukup memiliki atau menginginkan anak-anak tidak mencapai generativity.
• Sosial-dihargai kerja dan murid juga ekspresi generativity.
Tahap 8 - Ego Integrity vs Despair
• Ego adalah jaminan integritas ego akumulasi kapasitas untuk order dan makna.
• Keputusasaan ini ditandai dengan takut mati sendiri, serta hilangnya swasembada, dan mitra dicintai dan teman-teman.
• anak-anak Sehat, Erikson memberitahu kita, tidak akan takut hidup jika orang tua mereka memiliki integritas yang cukup untuk tidak takut mati.
Teori Belajar Sosial
"Belajar akan sangat melelahkan, belum lagi berbahaya, jika orang harus bergantung hanya pada efek dari tindakan mereka sendiri untuk memberitahu mereka apa yang harus dilakukan:. Untungnya kebanyakan manusia, perilaku dipelajari observasional melalui pemodelan dari mengamati orang lain satu bentuk ide tentang bagaimana perilaku baru dilakukan, dan pada kesempatan kemudian dikodekan informasi ini berfungsi sebagai panduan untuk bertindak. " -Albert Bandura, Teori Belajar Sosial, 1977
Apakah Teori Belajar Sosial?
Teori pembelajaran sosial yang diusulkan oleh Albert Bandura telah menjadi mungkin yang paling berpengaruh teori pembelajaran dan pengembangan. Sementara banyak berakar pada konsep-konsep dasar teori pembelajaran tradisional, Bandura percaya bahwa penguatan langsung tidak dapat menjelaskan untuk semua jenis pembelajaran.
Teorinya menambahkan elemen sosial, dengan alasan bahwa orang dapat belajar informasi baru dan perilaku dengan melihat orang lain. Dikenal sebagai belajar observasional (atau model), jenis ini learning dapat digunakan untuk menjelaskan berbagai perilaku.
Konsep Dasar Belajar Sosial
1. Orang dapat belajar melalui observasi.
Belajar observasional
Dalam terkenal "Bobo boneka" studi, Bandura menunjukkan bahwa anak-anak belajar dan meniru perilaku mereka telah diamati pada orang lain. Anak-anak dalam studi Bandura mengamati orang dewasa melakukan tindakan kekerasan terhadap boneka Bobo. Ketika anak-anak itu kemudian diizinkan bermain dalam sebuah ruangan dengan boneka Bobo, mereka mulai meniru tindakan agresif mereka sebelumnya diamati.
Bandura mengidentifikasi tiga model dasar pembelajaran observasional:
1. Model hidup, yang melibatkan seorang individu yang sebenarnya mendemonstrasikan atau bertindak keluar perilaku.
2. Sebuah model pembelajaran verbal, yang melibatkan deskripsi dan penjelasan perilaku.
3. Model simbolik, yang melibatkan karakter nyata atau fiksi menampilkan perilaku dalam buku-buku, film, program televisi, atau media online.
2. Mental negara adalah penting untuk belajar.
Penguatan intrinsik
Bandura mencatat bahwa eksternal, penguatan lingkungan bukan satu-satunya faktor untuk mempengaruhi belajar dan perilaku. Dia menggambarkan penguatan intrinsik sebagai bentuk penghargaan internal, seperti kebanggaan, kepuasan, dan rasa prestasi. Penekanan pada pikiran internal dan kognisi membantu teori belajar terhubung ke teori perkembangan kognitif. Meskipun banyak buku teks tempat teori belajar sosial dengan teori perilaku, Bandura sendiri menggambarkan pendekatan sebagai 'teori sosial kognitif. "
3. Belajar tidak selalu menyebabkan perubahan perilaku.
Sementara behavioris percaya bahwa belajar menyebabkan perubahan permanen dalam perilaku, belajar observasional menunjukkan bahwa orang dapat mempelajari informasi baru tanpa menunjukkan perilaku baru.
Proses Modeling
Tidak semua perilaku yang diamati secara efektif dipelajari. Faktor-faktor yang melibatkan model dan pelajar dapat memainkan peran dalam apakah pembelajaran sosial berhasil. persyaratan tertentu dan langkah-langkah juga harus diikuti. Langkah-langkah berikut yang terlibat dalam pembelajaran observasional dan proses pemodelan:
• Perhatian:
Dalam rangka untuk belajar, Anda harus memperhatikan. Apa pun yang akan mengurangi perhatian Anda akan memiliki efek negatif terhadap belajar. Jika model yang menarik atau ada aspek novel dengan situasi, Anda jauh lebih mungkin untuk mempersembahkan perhatian penuh untuk belajar.
• Retensi:
Kemampuan untuk menyimpan informasi juga merupakan bagian penting dari proses belajar. Retensi dapat dipengaruhi oleh sejumlah faktor, namun kemampuan untuk menarik informasi nanti dan bertindak sangat penting untuk belajar.
• Reproduksi:
Setelah Anda memperhatikan model dan mempertahankan informasi, sekarang saatnya untuk benar-benar melakukan perilaku yang Anda diamati. praktek lebih lanjut dari perilaku yang dipelajari mengarah pada kemajuan perbaikan dan keterampilan.
• Motivasi:
Akhirnya, agar observasional belajar menjadi sukses, Anda harus termotivasi untuk meniru perilaku yang telah dimodelkan. Penguatan dan hukuman memainkan peran penting dalam motivasi. Sementara mengalami motivator ini dapat sangat efektif, sehingga dapat mengamati pengalaman lain beberapa jenis penguat atau hukuman. Misalnya, jika Anda melihat siswa lain dihargai dengan kredit tambahan karena ke kelas tepat waktu, Anda mungkin mulai muncul beberapa menit lebih awal setiap hari.
Daftar Pustaka
http://translate.google.co.id/translate?hl=id&langpair=en%7Cid&u=http://psychology.about.com/od/developmentalpsychology/a/sociallearning.htm
http://translate.google.co.id/translate?hl=id&langpair=en%7Cid&u=http://www.haverford.edu/psych/ddavis/p109g/erikson.stages.html
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